Red Sea - Dead Sea Water Conveyance Feasibility Study and Environmental and Social Assessment
The declining water level of the Dead Sea has far reaching environmental, social, and economic consequences for the Dead Sea region and beyond. The water level of the Dead Sea has fallen over twenty meters in less than fifty years. The current rate of decline is approximately one meter per year. The consequent impacts on the region of the shrinking Sea are varied, numerous, and may soon become irreversible.
On May 22, 2005 at the annual World Economic Forum - Dead Sea, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, the State of Israel and the Palestinian Authority (in this website hereinafter referred to as the "beneficiary parties") announced their agreement and commitment to study the feasibility of transferring water from the Red Sea to the Dead Sea as a solution to stop the rapidly declining level of the Dead Sea. The three parties cooperatively prepared the terms of reference (TOR) for the Feasibility Study and Environmental and Social Assessment (the "Study") of a water transference from the Red Sea to the Dead Sea. In a jointly signed letter, the beneficiary parties requested the World Bank to coordinate donor support and manage the Study. The World Bank agreed and will manage the Study in accordance with its established policies and guidelines. This web site provides information on the status of the Study process and will, in due course, serve as a channel for public information, dialogue, and input.
Water transport from the Red Sea to the Dead Sea in order to prevent further decline of the Dead Sea's water level requires an in-depth feasibility study. The beneficiary parties share a vision for saving the Dead Sea. This vision involves conveying water from the Red Sea to the Dead Sea to reverse environmental degradation and generate water and energy at affordable prices for the region. This vision represents a symbol of peace and cooperation in the Middle East. The TOR prepared by the beneficiary parties stipulates a comprehensive investigation of the environmental, economic, social and technical implications of this water conveyance concept.
The Dead Sea is a site of exceptional historic, cultural, economic, and environmental importance for the Middle East and for the world. Furthermore, the Study offers a major opportunity for those who live in the lower Jordan Valley to work together and strengthen relationships among neighbors while addressing an environmental and water scarcity challenge of regional and global interest and significance. The beneficiary parties believe that the Study process itself promises to contribute to further cooperation.
The Study will consider environmental, economic, technical, social, and financial aspects of the concept, and shall not prejudice the riparian rights of any of the beneficiary parties.
The Study will be carried out through two independent consultancy contracts, one for the Feasibility Study and another for the Environmental and Social Assessment. World Bank procurement procedures apply. For more information, see the World Bank Procurement site.
A General Procurement Notice (GPN) is expected to be issued in March 2007 outlining the consultancy needs.
Red Sea - Dead Sea : Study Financing
The Study is financed through a multi-donor trust fund established for implementation of the Study pursuant to the Terms of Reference mutually agreed by the Beneficiary Parties. The beneficiary parties requested the World Bank to coordinate donor financing and manage the Feasibility Study and the Environmental and Social Assessment of the Red Sea - Dead Sea Water Conveyance concept.
Numerous international governments with proven histories of commitment to the region have expressed interest in funding this Study. The World Bank is currently in consultation with these potential donors regarding financing of the Feasibility Study and the Environmental and Social Assessment. France, Japan, the Netherlands, and the United States have made firm commitments to contribute to financing of the Study.
Work on the Study is estimated to take about two years from signing the contracts at a total cost of US$15.5 million.
Red Sea - Dead Sea : The Study Process
FEASIBILITY STUDY
Objective of the Study
To investigate the feasibility of the Red Sea‑Dead Sea Water Conveyance Project as a solution to the decline of the Dead Sea.
The outcome of the Feasibility Study and the Environmental and Social Assessment will serve as a tool for stakeholders to determine whether the construction of the Red Sea‑Dead Sea Water Conveyance Project is feasible, taking into account all relevant aspects including the technical, economic, financial, environmental, and social factors. This process will also provide an opportunity for a diverse range of stakeholders, including Civil Society Organizations and Nongovernmental Organizations, to dialogue with the beneficiary parties on the study findings and to provide their inputs, views and suggestions on the proposed project.
Terms of Reference
The terms of reference for the studies were:
Prepared through a cooperative process by the three governments
Sufficiently detailed to serve as tender document
Addresses both issues and identifies tasks
Describes oversight, management, and decision process
Provides for public consultation and disclosure processes
Principal Issues and Challenges to be Addressed in the Studies
The following aspects are addressed in the studies:
Environmental
Technical
Economic
Institutional
Social
The Study Program
“The Study Program consists of a full technical, economic, environmental and social evaluation of the proposed Red Sea–Dead Sea Water Conveyance Project through preparation by independent Consultants of a Feasibility Study and an Environmental and Social Assessment. Policy Statements on Water Resources Management that provide an overview of the policies in the context of the Dead Sea and identify ongoing and planned actions to address broader water resources management issues will be prepared in the region.”
- TOR, as signed by the beneficiary parties
Implementation of the Project would present a variety of environmental and social impacts, some positive and some negative, at both the area and project specific level. All of these conditions will be analyzed and projected into the future in order to form a baseline for assessment of impacts, analysis of alternatives and development of mitigation and monitoring actions.
Sub-Studies
The Feasibility Study and the Environmental and Social Assessment will draw upon four Sub-Studies, as specified below. The Sub-Studies will serve as the building blocks of and feed data and information to the Feasibility Study and Environmental and Social Assessment. The sub-studies are:
Gulf of Aqaba/Eilat Study - Source area
Water Conveyance System Study - Red Sea to the Dead Sea
Dead Sea Region Study - Rehabilitation of the Dead Sea
Hydropower and Desalination Facilities Study - Additional Option
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL ASSESSMENT
Key Environmental and Social Issues to be Studied
The following issues are addressed in the environmental and social assessment:
Upper Gulf of Aqaba/Eilat and Dead Sea marine environment including coral reefs
Impacts on the Aqaba and Eilat Region
Ecological connectivity in Wadi Araba
Impacts on the Dead Sea Region
Mixing Red Sea and Dead Sea Waters
Impacts on Groundwater
Impacts to Archeological, Historical and Cultural Sites
Impacts from Hydropower Facilities and Desalination Plants
Induced Impacts
HIV/AIDS Risks
Potential Impacts from Special Risks
Cumulative Impacts
Expected Study Timeline
The full duration of the Study is anticipated to be 24 months from the time of the signing of the consultancy contracts. Major targets within this timeline include: Inception reports, review of existing studies; identification of gaps in knowledge, preliminary draft reports, integration of sub-studies, and the final reports.
Red Sea - Dead Sea : Public Consultation and Disclosure
Public consultation and disclosure are internationally accepted practices for large-scale infrastructure projects. This process is a valuable safeguard mechanism, and as such is an essential element of any World Bank project or study. The Terms of Reference for the Feasibility Study and the Environmental and Social Assessment include extensive public consultation as well as stakeholder meetings at each and every stage of the process. These meetings will be announced well in advance and will be held in locations easily accessible to the stakeholders. This process will be sponsored by and directly involve Jordanian, Israeli, and Palestinian officials. This web site will post a schedule of meetings as available.
Red Sea - Dead Sea - Independent Panel of Experts
Large scale projects that are highly complex often involve the use of independent panels of internationally recognized experts to provide advice during the design, implementation, and operational phases. Although this process is not common to feasibility studies, the TOR for this Study stipulates appointment of an internationally reknowned independent panel of experts to monitor, review, and provide advice to the Study Technical Steering Committee during the implementation of the Feasibility Study and Environmental and Social Assessment
Red Sea - Dead Sea : Additional Information
Who is Involved
Duration and Cost
Timing for the Study
Financing
Focus of the Study
Cooperation Among the Beneficiary Parties
Civil Society / Getting involved
Background Information
Useful Links
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Who is Involved
As mentioned, the three Beneficiary Parties are involved in this study. In addition, stakeholder groups and individuals from civil society will participate throughout the Study consultation process. The World Bank will assist with oversight and implementation of the Study.
Duration and Cost
Once the consultancy contracts are signed, the work is expected to take up to two years at an estimated cost of US$ 15.5 million. The cost reflects the degree of details the various complex environmental, social, economic, and technical issues and concerns are to be addressed. It also reflects the cost of extensive public discussion and stakeholder involvement required of complex studies such as this one.
Timing for the Study
The continued decline of the Dead Sea has created an increasingly critical situation in need of urgent attention.
Financing
The beneficiary parties have asked the World Bank to coordinate donor financing and to manage the study. To this end, the World Bank has established a multi-donor trust fund and contributions have been confirmed from France, Japan, the Netherlands, and the USA. Other interested international donors are invited to examine the Study Program and to contribute to the implementation of the study.
Focus of the Study
The Red Sea to Dead Sea Water Conveyance option was identified during the 1996 - 1998 Prefeasibility Study as the conveyance route with the greatest likelihood of success and the least potential negative impact. The beneficiary parties jointly have agreed to pursue this Feasibility Study. Together they will undertake a comprehensive investigation of this water conveyance route, including analysis of the environmental, technical and economic aspects of the proposed Project, and an extensive environmental and social assessment of potential impacts.
Cooperation among the beneficiary parties
Joint preparation of the Terms of Reference and, later, statements of support made by ministerial-level representatives of the beneficiary parties at the World Economic Forum – Dead Sea in May 2005 and the donors' meeting in Paris in July 2005 demonstrate the formal commitment among the parties to continued cooperation. Notably, these formal commitments were preceded by a lengthy process wherein multi-disciplinary teams from the three beneficiary parties worked together to draft the TOR. These efforts, which continued during troubled times in the region, demonstrates the true commitment of the beneficiary parties to arrest the decline of the Dead Sea water level and follow through with the Study. While addressing serious environmental issue in the region, the Study serves as an example of the peaceful and cooperative activities taking place in the region.
Civil Society / Getting involved
As a private citizen you can follow the progress of the Study through this website. For residents of the region, discussions with stakeholders will be conducted throughout the term of the Study. The dates of the stakeholder and public consultations will be posted on this website as they become available.
Background Information
Useful Links:
World Bank Safeguard Policies
World Bank Procurement Procedures
Red Sea - Dead Sea : Procurement
The Study will be carried out through two independent consultancy contracts, one for the Feasibility Study and another for the Environmental and Social Assessment. World Bank procurement procedures apply. A General Procurement Notice (GPN) is expected to be issued in March 2007 outlining the consultancy needs.
For more information, see the Information Sheet and the World Bank Procurement site.
The Study will consider environmental, economic, technical, social, and financial aspects of the concept, and shall not prejudice the riparian rights of any of the beneficiary
Sunday 4 March 2007
RD conveyor idea in 2002
The Newsletter of
The Middle East Desalination Research Center
Issue 17
October 2002
Koussai Quteishat
Center Director
KEEP THE DEAD SEA ALIVE
Yet enhance the lives of people living on its shores
The case we are addressing here is the Red to Dead Sea Conveyor Project slated in the Johannesburg Earth Summit in August 2002 as an integrated project addressing a potential environmental disaster, defining a renewable source of energy and proposing desalination as a viable source of water supply.
Thermal, solar, wind, nuclear, and tidal are all energy sources, at various stages of applicability, that are/can be used to produce desalinated water. Selection of one over the other is governed by many factors, the primary of which are economical and environmental. These two factors combined give a measure of sustainability. The Red to Dead Sea Conveyor (RDC) uses gravity to generate power. Although common, hydraulic power is not usually associated with desalination since where hydraulic power prevails, relatively fresh water also prevails. The RDC is thus an ideal case that addresses the two primary factors for sustainability, namely energy and environment.
Seawater is a renewable source of water. The dream, since desalination became a viable source of water supply, has been to have an economic and renewable source of energy that is also environmentally friendly. The Red to Dead Sea Conveyor (RDC) is thus an ideal combination of renewable water and renewable energy.
The challenge of integrating energy-water-environment, as the tripod for sustainable development, is addressed through technological advancements. In the case of the RDC, technology has to be harnessed to tackle the various issues that the project may raise.
MEDRC sees the RDC as a viable project that is worthy of pursuing. We wish herein to make the desalination industry aware of the project. We are aware that abundant research is warranted to address the technical issues related to desalination. The project is not the type that can await implementation to resolve any problems of technical nature. These have to be forecasted and solutions defined. We have few specific research projects in mind to initiate the momentum needed for the industry to place this project on its drawing board, and welcome any unsolicited proposals that would define and tackle any of the issues that may be forthcoming in such a scheme.
The Red Sea – Dead Sea Conveyer (RDC) Project entails the transfer of seawater from the Red Sea through a conveyance system, about 180 km in length, to the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is nearly 400 meter below the normal sea level. The difference in height will be utilized hydrostatically to desalinate the incoming water to supply Jordan, Palestine, and Israel with fresh water. The proposed Reverse Osmosis desalination will result in the largest RO plant in the world, producing about 850 million cubic meters per year. The project will also provide water needed to raise the Dead Sea to its original level and to replenish the annually evaporated water. Other side benefits will cultivate from the project in areas such as energy, tourism, agriculture, etc.
Facts about the Red Sea-Dead Sea Conveyor Project (RDC)
The Dead Sea Salinity is ten times the normal sea salinity.
The Dead sea is the lowest point on earth at about 410 meter
(1360 feet) below sea level.
The level of the Dead Sea is dropping at annual rate of 0.5 to 1.0 meter for the last 40 years.
The surface area of the Dead Sea has decreased from 1000 to 669 square kilometers in the same period.
The length of the intended conveyer to transport water from the Red Sea to replenish the Dead Sea is about 200 km
About 400 m of hydrostatic head can be utilized to power Reverse Osmosis desalination plant.
Annually 850 Million Cubic Meter of desalinated water is to be produced for the benefit of the shoring nations.
The Middle East Desalination Research Center
Issue 17
October 2002
Koussai Quteishat
Center Director
KEEP THE DEAD SEA ALIVE
Yet enhance the lives of people living on its shores
The case we are addressing here is the Red to Dead Sea Conveyor Project slated in the Johannesburg Earth Summit in August 2002 as an integrated project addressing a potential environmental disaster, defining a renewable source of energy and proposing desalination as a viable source of water supply.
Thermal, solar, wind, nuclear, and tidal are all energy sources, at various stages of applicability, that are/can be used to produce desalinated water. Selection of one over the other is governed by many factors, the primary of which are economical and environmental. These two factors combined give a measure of sustainability. The Red to Dead Sea Conveyor (RDC) uses gravity to generate power. Although common, hydraulic power is not usually associated with desalination since where hydraulic power prevails, relatively fresh water also prevails. The RDC is thus an ideal case that addresses the two primary factors for sustainability, namely energy and environment.
Seawater is a renewable source of water. The dream, since desalination became a viable source of water supply, has been to have an economic and renewable source of energy that is also environmentally friendly. The Red to Dead Sea Conveyor (RDC) is thus an ideal combination of renewable water and renewable energy.
The challenge of integrating energy-water-environment, as the tripod for sustainable development, is addressed through technological advancements. In the case of the RDC, technology has to be harnessed to tackle the various issues that the project may raise.
MEDRC sees the RDC as a viable project that is worthy of pursuing. We wish herein to make the desalination industry aware of the project. We are aware that abundant research is warranted to address the technical issues related to desalination. The project is not the type that can await implementation to resolve any problems of technical nature. These have to be forecasted and solutions defined. We have few specific research projects in mind to initiate the momentum needed for the industry to place this project on its drawing board, and welcome any unsolicited proposals that would define and tackle any of the issues that may be forthcoming in such a scheme.
The Red Sea – Dead Sea Conveyer (RDC) Project entails the transfer of seawater from the Red Sea through a conveyance system, about 180 km in length, to the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is nearly 400 meter below the normal sea level. The difference in height will be utilized hydrostatically to desalinate the incoming water to supply Jordan, Palestine, and Israel with fresh water. The proposed Reverse Osmosis desalination will result in the largest RO plant in the world, producing about 850 million cubic meters per year. The project will also provide water needed to raise the Dead Sea to its original level and to replenish the annually evaporated water. Other side benefits will cultivate from the project in areas such as energy, tourism, agriculture, etc.
Facts about the Red Sea-Dead Sea Conveyor Project (RDC)
The Dead Sea Salinity is ten times the normal sea salinity.
The Dead sea is the lowest point on earth at about 410 meter
(1360 feet) below sea level.
The level of the Dead Sea is dropping at annual rate of 0.5 to 1.0 meter for the last 40 years.
The surface area of the Dead Sea has decreased from 1000 to 669 square kilometers in the same period.
The length of the intended conveyer to transport water from the Red Sea to replenish the Dead Sea is about 200 km
About 400 m of hydrostatic head can be utilized to power Reverse Osmosis desalination plant.
Annually 850 Million Cubic Meter of desalinated water is to be produced for the benefit of the shoring nations.
14. Literature
Allan, J.A. "Water desalination in Israel-Jordan: challenges, projects -- symbolic and real solutions." London: SOAS Water Issues Group Occasional Publication, 1997.
Cooperman, Alan, "On a scale of 1 to 10, just how dead is it?" U.S. News Online(Dec. 9, 1996).
Harza Engineering Company, "Water Resources." URL: http://www.harza.com/cap/wr.htm Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Information Division, Jerusalem, "Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal." URL: http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/peace/projects/jrv5.html
Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Water Resources Working Group, "Med-Dead-Red." URL: www.israel-mfa.gov.il.peace/water.html
Israel Business and Technology Magazine On-Line, Link Magazine (1996), "Med-Dead-Red." URL: http://www.link2link.co.il/water.meded.htm
Naff, Thomas and Ruth C. Matson, eds. Water in the Middle East: Conflict or Cooperation?Philadelphia: Middle East Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania, 1994.
Palnet Project No. 6, "Mediterranean-Dead Seas Connecting Canal." URL: http://www.palnet.com/inv/wtrproj6.htm
Starr, Joyce R. "Water Wars," Foreign Policy 82 (Spring 1991): 17-36.
Steinhorn, Ilana and Joel R. Gat. "The Dead Sea,"249 Scientific American 102 (1983): 102-9.
Wishert, David. "An Economic Approach to Understanding Jordan Valley Water Disputes," Middle East Review XXI (Summer 1989): 45-53.
Wolf, Aaron. "Water for Peace in the Jordan River Watershed," Natural Resources Journal 33 (Summer 1993): 797-839.
World Resources 1996-1997. The World Resources Institute, The United Nations Environment Programme, The United Nations Development Programme, The World Bank. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. 301-304.
Cooperman, Alan, "On a scale of 1 to 10, just how dead is it?" U.S. News Online(Dec. 9, 1996).
Harza Engineering Company, "Water Resources." URL: http://www.harza.com/cap/wr.htm Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Information Division, Jerusalem, "Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal." URL: http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/peace/projects/jrv5.html
Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Water Resources Working Group, "Med-Dead-Red." URL: www.israel-mfa.gov.il.peace/water.html
Israel Business and Technology Magazine On-Line, Link Magazine (1996), "Med-Dead-Red." URL: http://www.link2link.co.il/water.meded.htm
Naff, Thomas and Ruth C. Matson, eds. Water in the Middle East: Conflict or Cooperation?Philadelphia: Middle East Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania, 1994.
Palnet Project No. 6, "Mediterranean-Dead Seas Connecting Canal." URL: http://www.palnet.com/inv/wtrproj6.htm
Starr, Joyce R. "Water Wars," Foreign Policy 82 (Spring 1991): 17-36.
Steinhorn, Ilana and Joel R. Gat. "The Dead Sea,"249 Scientific American 102 (1983): 102-9.
Wishert, David. "An Economic Approach to Understanding Jordan Valley Water Disputes," Middle East Review XXI (Summer 1989): 45-53.
Wolf, Aaron. "Water for Peace in the Jordan River Watershed," Natural Resources Journal 33 (Summer 1993): 797-839.
World Resources 1996-1997. The World Resources Institute, The United Nations Environment Programme, The United Nations Development Programme, The World Bank. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. 301-304.
14. Trans boundary issues
The Dead Sea lies on the border between Israel and Jordan. The Jordan River which feeds into the Dead Sea is formed by the confluence of three rivers the Hasbani in Lebanon, the Dan in northern Israel and the Banias in Syria
13. Culture
The political culture in the Middle East is an obstacle to cooperation on large-scale desalination projects. Water is a national security issue, and shared water development present a threat to national self-sufficiency in water resources. With this in mind, both the governments of Israel and Jordan have pursued unilateral development projects on the Jordan River for the past 40 years. The parties have found it difficult to agree to creative solutions for cooperative management of shared resources. Since the signing of the peace treaty between Israel and Jordan in 1994, relations between the two countries have approached a point that a joint project, such as a canal, might be possible. There is the additional factor of the Palestinian interests, which might demand a role in any large-scale diversion and desalination project.
The Dead Sea region has special historical significance for Israel. The Bible describes, in Genesis 19, the destructive earthquake near the Dead Sea area at the time of Abraham. While no evidence remains of the ancient cities of Zeboim, Admah, Bela, Sodom or Gomorrah, their sites are believed to be located near the southern end of the sea. In 1947, a young Beduin shepherd discovered an ancient scroll in a cave at Qumran, near the northern basin. The scroll was preserved by the low humidity in the cave. Additional discoveries in the area produced thousands of scroll fragments which have been pieced together and preserved at the Shrine of the Book Museum in Jerusalem. Scientists used carbon-14 dating to determine that the scrolls date back to the Essene sect, which inhabited the Qumran area from the 3rd century BCE to 68 CE.
The Dead Sea region has special historical significance for Israel. The Bible describes, in Genesis 19, the destructive earthquake near the Dead Sea area at the time of Abraham. While no evidence remains of the ancient cities of Zeboim, Admah, Bela, Sodom or Gomorrah, their sites are believed to be located near the southern end of the sea. In 1947, a young Beduin shepherd discovered an ancient scroll in a cave at Qumran, near the northern basin. The scroll was preserved by the low humidity in the cave. Additional discoveries in the area produced thousands of scroll fragments which have been pieced together and preserved at the Shrine of the Book Museum in Jerusalem. Scientists used carbon-14 dating to determine that the scrolls date back to the Essene sect, which inhabited the Qumran area from the 3rd century BCE to 68 CE.
12. Environment
The Dead Sea got its name because it was believed that life forms could not survive in the salty water. In 1936, Benjamin Elazari-Volcani of the Sieff Institute in Israel found evidence of microorganisms in the lake. He found one species of alga, the green Dunaliella, and several species of bacteria. The Dundaliella is usually found in fresh water or seawater but can adapt to a hyper saline environment by synthesizing glycerol, which increases the osmotic pressure inside the cell and prevents the entry of salt. Algae can only survive at the surface. Halotolerant red bacteria, which can survive in water with a moderate salt concentration (at least 150 grams of sodium chloride), are found at the northern end where fresh Jordan River mixes with Dead Sea water. The halobacterial cell contains a high concentration of potassium, and the cell membrane retains potassium rather than sodium. This feature allow the cell to survive in salty waters. Studies have found a high correlation between the physical and biological properties of the Dead Sea. One study found that the total number of bacteria decreased by a factor of 100 at a depth of 50 meters, and that there were no living alge below 100 meters. A 1970 study counted 40,000 Danaliella cells per milliliter at the surface, but only anaerobic bacteria below 50 meters.
Changes in salinity have an impact on the biological composition of the lake. Dilution in salt content causes the profusion of microorganisms. Heavy rains in the winter of 1980 (also in 1992) diluted the salt content of the lake and caused the number of microorganisms at the surface to multiply to some 19 million cells per milliliter. As a result, the color of the surface water changed from blue green to reddish blue. Scientists predict that a sudden inflow of fresh water, channeled in by a canal for example, could turn the sea first green, then bright pink.
Even though the southern basin is dry most of the year, the Dead Sea is not in danger of drying up any time soon. Water evaporates slowly because the vapor pressure over the surface is lowered by the water's dissolved salts. According to the current rate of evaporation, it would take hundreds of years for the lake to dry up because the northern basin is so deep. Nonetheless, if water levels continue to drop, the Dead Sea would see changes in landscape and biodiversity.
The Dead Sea's low surface level has caused changes in the biological, chemical and physical composition of the lake. The gradual recession of the shore may have negative effects on tourism and potash mining. A more pressing issue is that the low surface level is evidence of the water shortage throughout the region. Overuse and mismanagement of existing resources, in addition to massive development projects on both sides of the Jordan River, have caused water table levels throughout Israel to drop. Lake Tiberias, which supplies almost one-third of Israel's water requirements, is at its lowest level in 60 years. As a result, Israel and Jordan rank among the top 20 countries suffering from water scarcity, according to World Resources Water Stress Index, 1990. This index measures annual renewable water resources per capita available for agriculture, industry and domestic use. Renewable freshwater resources of 1,000 cubic meters have been accepted as an adequate minimum for development. Israel and Jordan are already far below that level. Using the same index to predict future water scarcity given low and high UN population growth predictions, the situation is expected to worsen. Although efficient management and modern technology can stretch scarce resources in some cases Israel, for example, supports agricultural, industrial and domestic needs with less than 500 cubic meters per person per year present water use may not be sustainable in the long run.
Table: Water Stress Index (cubic meters per capita) World Resources 1996-1997
1990:
Israel 461
Jordan 308
Projected water resources for 2050:
Israel 192-300
Jordan 68-90
Conservation efforts include reduced diversion of Jordan River water and more efficient use of water in agriculture. If a Med-Dead or Red-Dead Canal was constructed, Israel and Jordan could reduce the capacity of existing diversion projects. As it stands now, Israel spends nearly 20 percent of its energy resources to lift some 350 million cubic meters from Lake Kinneret, and pump it through the National Water Carrier each year. The canal would also reduce the need for additional diversion projects, since hydropower generated by the canal would provide a new supply of water for the region. Israeli water authorities have made efforts to promote efficient usage through cutbacks in subsidies to farmers. However, there needs to be an education campaign throughout the region on the value of using water efficiently.
Changes in salinity have an impact on the biological composition of the lake. Dilution in salt content causes the profusion of microorganisms. Heavy rains in the winter of 1980 (also in 1992) diluted the salt content of the lake and caused the number of microorganisms at the surface to multiply to some 19 million cells per milliliter. As a result, the color of the surface water changed from blue green to reddish blue. Scientists predict that a sudden inflow of fresh water, channeled in by a canal for example, could turn the sea first green, then bright pink.
Even though the southern basin is dry most of the year, the Dead Sea is not in danger of drying up any time soon. Water evaporates slowly because the vapor pressure over the surface is lowered by the water's dissolved salts. According to the current rate of evaporation, it would take hundreds of years for the lake to dry up because the northern basin is so deep. Nonetheless, if water levels continue to drop, the Dead Sea would see changes in landscape and biodiversity.
The Dead Sea's low surface level has caused changes in the biological, chemical and physical composition of the lake. The gradual recession of the shore may have negative effects on tourism and potash mining. A more pressing issue is that the low surface level is evidence of the water shortage throughout the region. Overuse and mismanagement of existing resources, in addition to massive development projects on both sides of the Jordan River, have caused water table levels throughout Israel to drop. Lake Tiberias, which supplies almost one-third of Israel's water requirements, is at its lowest level in 60 years. As a result, Israel and Jordan rank among the top 20 countries suffering from water scarcity, according to World Resources Water Stress Index, 1990. This index measures annual renewable water resources per capita available for agriculture, industry and domestic use. Renewable freshwater resources of 1,000 cubic meters have been accepted as an adequate minimum for development. Israel and Jordan are already far below that level. Using the same index to predict future water scarcity given low and high UN population growth predictions, the situation is expected to worsen. Although efficient management and modern technology can stretch scarce resources in some cases Israel, for example, supports agricultural, industrial and domestic needs with less than 500 cubic meters per person per year present water use may not be sustainable in the long run.
Table: Water Stress Index (cubic meters per capita) World Resources 1996-1997
1990:
Israel 461
Jordan 308
Projected water resources for 2050:
Israel 192-300
Jordan 68-90
Conservation efforts include reduced diversion of Jordan River water and more efficient use of water in agriculture. If a Med-Dead or Red-Dead Canal was constructed, Israel and Jordan could reduce the capacity of existing diversion projects. As it stands now, Israel spends nearly 20 percent of its energy resources to lift some 350 million cubic meters from Lake Kinneret, and pump it through the National Water Carrier each year. The canal would also reduce the need for additional diversion projects, since hydropower generated by the canal would provide a new supply of water for the region. Israeli water authorities have made efforts to promote efficient usage through cutbacks in subsidies to farmers. However, there needs to be an education campaign throughout the region on the value of using water efficiently.
11. Economic Data
The canal project is expensive. The Israel study team estimated costs ranging from $1.5 to $5 billion, which included the cost of infrastructure, but not of conveyance from the desalination plant to the end users. The Harza study estimates that construction of the canal would take 10 years with an estimated cost of $5 billion. While the Harza report also did not include an extensive economic analysis of conveyence costs, Harza engineers compared the value of one cubic meter of water per second diverted, with the value of desalinating the same unit of water. They estimated that the cost of water diverted by a canal would range from $1.30 to $1.55 per metric cube. These calculations are similar to the cost of desalinated seawater from current desalination projects. Therefore, the canal would not necessarily be the most cost efficient solution. Harza concluded that further studies about the economic benefits of a Dead Sea canal project are necessary.
Despite the fact that the project would be costly and its economic benefits unclear, the canal could take advantage of sparsely populated lands for agricultural and industrial production, spark regional cooperation and help alleviate the region's water shortage. Additional economic returns might include: energy towers and solar energy ponds; expansion of fish culture in reservoirs and fish farms; expansion of water sports and the tourism industry; opportunities for investment in industries such as plastic manufacturing, aggregate processing; metal fabrication and repair workshops; and a possible communications network serving the canal project. All of these side benefits would create jobs. Desalinated water would also boost agriculture and help alleviate domestic consumption shortages.
Another economic issue is the cost of water. In January 1991, a Israeli Comptroller General report identified the low price of water as the cause of a decline in supply. Farmers "take what they can" rather than taking only that allotment necessary for efficient water use. The report urged increasing water prices -- a move that would encourage farmers to reduce consumption of irrigation water, adopt efficient water-use technologies and find new sources of water. High water subsidies, especially in agriculture, are the primary reason for low prices. Subsidized water causes waste in agricultural practices, little incentive for development of conservation techniques and too much water allocated to agriculture over industry or domestic use. Removing subsidies and allowing the price of water to reflect the total cost of resource development -- including pumping, treatment and transport -- would maximize efficient usage. It would allow water historically used for agricultural purposes, to be reallocated to higher-valued uses such as domestic and industrial needs. Israel has already cut back the amount of water available to farmers in Israel proper by 40 percent, and restricted Israeli farmers in the West Bank from engaging in extensive water-absorbing farming practices. If water was correctly priced, farmers would rely less on water-intensive crops and shift crops according to market demand. They could also sell water surplus as a source of income, which they could reinvest in new technology to improve overall efficiency.
The cost of freshwater produced by a Dead Sea hydro project would have to reflect investments in, and maintenance of the conveyance system and desalination plant. Although infrastructure is expensive, the price of desalinated water has decreased. In the early 1980s the unit cost was $1.2 per cubic meter. By 1994, the cost dropped to between $0.6 and $0.7. Price decreases are expected to continue as the desalination industry continues to grow.
Despite the fact that the project would be costly and its economic benefits unclear, the canal could take advantage of sparsely populated lands for agricultural and industrial production, spark regional cooperation and help alleviate the region's water shortage. Additional economic returns might include: energy towers and solar energy ponds; expansion of fish culture in reservoirs and fish farms; expansion of water sports and the tourism industry; opportunities for investment in industries such as plastic manufacturing, aggregate processing; metal fabrication and repair workshops; and a possible communications network serving the canal project. All of these side benefits would create jobs. Desalinated water would also boost agriculture and help alleviate domestic consumption shortages.
Another economic issue is the cost of water. In January 1991, a Israeli Comptroller General report identified the low price of water as the cause of a decline in supply. Farmers "take what they can" rather than taking only that allotment necessary for efficient water use. The report urged increasing water prices -- a move that would encourage farmers to reduce consumption of irrigation water, adopt efficient water-use technologies and find new sources of water. High water subsidies, especially in agriculture, are the primary reason for low prices. Subsidized water causes waste in agricultural practices, little incentive for development of conservation techniques and too much water allocated to agriculture over industry or domestic use. Removing subsidies and allowing the price of water to reflect the total cost of resource development -- including pumping, treatment and transport -- would maximize efficient usage. It would allow water historically used for agricultural purposes, to be reallocated to higher-valued uses such as domestic and industrial needs. Israel has already cut back the amount of water available to farmers in Israel proper by 40 percent, and restricted Israeli farmers in the West Bank from engaging in extensive water-absorbing farming practices. If water was correctly priced, farmers would rely less on water-intensive crops and shift crops according to market demand. They could also sell water surplus as a source of income, which they could reinvest in new technology to improve overall efficiency.
The cost of freshwater produced by a Dead Sea hydro project would have to reflect investments in, and maintenance of the conveyance system and desalination plant. Although infrastructure is expensive, the price of desalinated water has decreased. In the early 1980s the unit cost was $1.2 per cubic meter. By 1994, the cost dropped to between $0.6 and $0.7. Price decreases are expected to continue as the desalination industry continues to grow.
10. Trade
Water resources in the Middle East are nationalized. In most countries, water is allocated through a quota system by the central authorities. Subsidization is necessary because overuse and mismanagement of water resources have created a shortage in supply. Development of supply sources is essential. By the middle of the next century, the combined Israeli/Jordan/Palestinian populations, estimated at 25 million, could use up the total natural water availability of the Jordan River system (rainfall, snowmelt and renewable recharge to shared aquifers) for domestic consumption, based on an annual per capita domestic consumption of 100 cubic meters. Water for agriculture and industry will then have to come exclusively from secondary sources such as reclaimed wastewater; desalination, fossil or saline groundwater; and freshwater aquifers lying entirely within one country. Reliance on undeveloped secondary sources is risky in a region where agriculture requires more water than domestic or industrial consumption. In Israel alone, the agricultural sector uses more than 70 percent of the country's water. Thus, a Med-Dead or Red-Dead Canal that would not only refill the Dead Sea to normal levels, but possibly generate hydropower for use throughout the region, is a much needed source of supply.
The Harza plan is based on two principles: the location of the Dead Sea 400 meters below the level of the Mediterranean and Red Seas, and the disturbances in the hydrological composition of the Dead Sea over the past few decades. The Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal (RSDSC) project would take advantage of the natural drop to restore the lake to its normal level. The three components of the plan include pumping and conveyance facilities to transport sea water from the Red Sea to the desalination plant located near the Dead Sea; the desalination plant (powered by the water drop) and its residual energy benefits; and two freshwater conveyance lines to transport desalinated water to end users. Eight hundred million cubic meters a year would be transferred directly to needy areas.
This increase in supply would reverse 100 percent of the Jordanian deficit and 40 percent of the Israeli deficit. Secondary benefits include increased income from tourism on both sides of the Dead Sea, income from surplus energy production during the first years of operation and income from industries involved in the construction and maintenance of the canal and desalination plant. Harza estimates that the economic benefit to tourism (based on a comparison of tourism potential with and without the canal) would amount to $320 million; the benefit to industries that provide the reverse osmosis desalination membranes would be $15-40 million per year; and the value of income from energy production for the first 18 years would be $80 million. The canal would also eliminate sinkhole collapse due to the declining level of the Dead Sea.
a. Directly Related to Product: yes; water
b. Indirectly Related to Product: yes; many
c. Not Related to Product: no
d. Related to Process: yes; water
Possible negative impacts on the physical environment include groundwater contamination due to saltwater leakage from the canal system. Possible negative biological impacts include the interruption of wildlife movement due to construction and maintenance of infrastructure projects, and the effects on coral reefs at the proposed Red Sea intake point.
An inflow of seawater could also overturn the water column. Normally in a freshwater lake, changes in salinity caused by a quicker rate of freshwater inflow than evaporation, are tempered by temperature changes which decrease the density of the upper levels. In the Dead Sea, however, the water temperature change is not significant enough to effect changes in salinity. As a result, the Dead Sea's water column is different than that of a freshwater lake and from most saline lakes.
The first hydrographic study, conducted in 1864, showed that the Dead Sea water column was stratified by salinity. A 1959-1960 study revealed a salinity density of 250 grams per kilogram at the surface, 25 grams per kilogram at a depth of 35-40 meters and a gradual gradient down to 80 meters. In the upper levels, salinity and temperature varied with the season, while below 80 meters, the water was mostly 21.3 degrees Celcius with a salinity of 276 grams per kilogram. This high level of salinity, together with a strong odor of hydrogen sulfide found in deeper samples, suggest that the water contains no dissolved oxygen and plays host to anaerobic bacteria. The study concluded that homogeneous water below 80 meters is fossil water that has remained isolated from contact with the upper layers and with the atmosphere.
The isolation of the fossil water body give it characteristic chemical and radioactive properties, including low values of radioactive tritium and radium and the presence of bivalent iron, which indicates a lack of oxygen. One study found that radioactive isotopes had been introduced into the surface layers and mixed throughout the water column before its stratification. Once this mixing took place, the isotopes could not be replenished and were subject to radioactive decay. Measurements of the decay indicate that water below 80 meters had begun to be isolated about 300 years ago. This homogeneous fossil water did not mix with surface water.
In the years immediately preceding the overturn, measurements show that less than two percent of the fossil water was being renewed per year. The final overturn in 1978-79 caused the fossil water body to mix with the overlying levels. Hydrographic studies carried out since 1975 by the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel found that the water column became more homogeneous as the salinity of the upper levels approached that of the deeper water. By the summer of 1978, the salinity gradient of the upper layers had surpassed that of the deep water, yet the warm surface temperature preserved the density of the surface waters and the stratification of the water column. During the following winter, the non-fossil water cooled and the water column finally overturned.
Conditions for a water column overturn include a decrease in the water column's stability due to an increase in surface-water salinity resulting from a decline in the water level. These conditions do not occur in the summer, when the surface layers are warmed, but are more common in the winter. After many dry seasons, the surface layers become salty enough (and dense enough) for the mixing to reach the deeper fossil water body. A rainy season may cause the mixing to remain at the upper levels. For example, the sudden inflow of freshwater during the winter rains of 1980, caused the water column to remain stratified for three years.
The canal would affect the production of potash, whose primary commercial application is fertilizer. Potash, or potassium chloride (KC1), was first extracted in the 1930s by a mining engineer from Siberia. According to M.A. Novomeyski's process of selective evaporation the model for potash production used today by the Dead Sea Potash Works lake water is transferred to evaporation pans and the various salts precipitate as they reach saturation. Gypsum crystalizes first, then sodium chloride, then the mineral carnallite. Potash is extracted when the carnellite breaks down into its components; it is then further refined. The evaporation pans were originally located at the southern end of the lake. Changes in the Dead Sea have affected the extraction of potash. Because the southern basin is dry most of the year, the end brine must be pumped from farther away. Also, the increased salinity decreases the time for evaporation and has resulted in the precipitation of salts in pumps and conduits before they even reach the pans.
Since ancient times, people have recognized the unique characteristics of the Dead Sea. Aristotle (304-322 B.C.) was the first to tell the world about the salty body of water where no fish live and people float. Josefus Flavius (37-c.100), Galen (122-c.220) and Pliny the Elder (23-79) reported the therapeutic qualities of the water. King Solomon and Cleopatra used Dead Sea compounds to cure common ailments. Today, tourists flock to the Dead Sea for treatment of skin diseases and arthritis. The Dead Sea's low elevation, high salt concentration and high evaporation rate (about 2 billion cubic meters per year) create a thick haze which filters out UVB rays that cause sunburn. As a result, the air is oxygen-rich, pollen-free and filtered of harmful rays. Through a process of Natural Selective Ultraviolet Photo Therapy, Dead Sea specialists treat patients with psoriasis and joint problems. Dead Sea mud, found on the shores of the lake, is also good for the skin. The Ahava factory, located near the Dead Sea, manufactures mud and other skin products that are sold around the world.
The Harza plan is based on two principles: the location of the Dead Sea 400 meters below the level of the Mediterranean and Red Seas, and the disturbances in the hydrological composition of the Dead Sea over the past few decades. The Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal (RSDSC) project would take advantage of the natural drop to restore the lake to its normal level. The three components of the plan include pumping and conveyance facilities to transport sea water from the Red Sea to the desalination plant located near the Dead Sea; the desalination plant (powered by the water drop) and its residual energy benefits; and two freshwater conveyance lines to transport desalinated water to end users. Eight hundred million cubic meters a year would be transferred directly to needy areas.
This increase in supply would reverse 100 percent of the Jordanian deficit and 40 percent of the Israeli deficit. Secondary benefits include increased income from tourism on both sides of the Dead Sea, income from surplus energy production during the first years of operation and income from industries involved in the construction and maintenance of the canal and desalination plant. Harza estimates that the economic benefit to tourism (based on a comparison of tourism potential with and without the canal) would amount to $320 million; the benefit to industries that provide the reverse osmosis desalination membranes would be $15-40 million per year; and the value of income from energy production for the first 18 years would be $80 million. The canal would also eliminate sinkhole collapse due to the declining level of the Dead Sea.
a. Directly Related to Product: yes; water
b. Indirectly Related to Product: yes; many
c. Not Related to Product: no
d. Related to Process: yes; water
Possible negative impacts on the physical environment include groundwater contamination due to saltwater leakage from the canal system. Possible negative biological impacts include the interruption of wildlife movement due to construction and maintenance of infrastructure projects, and the effects on coral reefs at the proposed Red Sea intake point.
An inflow of seawater could also overturn the water column. Normally in a freshwater lake, changes in salinity caused by a quicker rate of freshwater inflow than evaporation, are tempered by temperature changes which decrease the density of the upper levels. In the Dead Sea, however, the water temperature change is not significant enough to effect changes in salinity. As a result, the Dead Sea's water column is different than that of a freshwater lake and from most saline lakes.
The first hydrographic study, conducted in 1864, showed that the Dead Sea water column was stratified by salinity. A 1959-1960 study revealed a salinity density of 250 grams per kilogram at the surface, 25 grams per kilogram at a depth of 35-40 meters and a gradual gradient down to 80 meters. In the upper levels, salinity and temperature varied with the season, while below 80 meters, the water was mostly 21.3 degrees Celcius with a salinity of 276 grams per kilogram. This high level of salinity, together with a strong odor of hydrogen sulfide found in deeper samples, suggest that the water contains no dissolved oxygen and plays host to anaerobic bacteria. The study concluded that homogeneous water below 80 meters is fossil water that has remained isolated from contact with the upper layers and with the atmosphere.
The isolation of the fossil water body give it characteristic chemical and radioactive properties, including low values of radioactive tritium and radium and the presence of bivalent iron, which indicates a lack of oxygen. One study found that radioactive isotopes had been introduced into the surface layers and mixed throughout the water column before its stratification. Once this mixing took place, the isotopes could not be replenished and were subject to radioactive decay. Measurements of the decay indicate that water below 80 meters had begun to be isolated about 300 years ago. This homogeneous fossil water did not mix with surface water.
In the years immediately preceding the overturn, measurements show that less than two percent of the fossil water was being renewed per year. The final overturn in 1978-79 caused the fossil water body to mix with the overlying levels. Hydrographic studies carried out since 1975 by the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel found that the water column became more homogeneous as the salinity of the upper levels approached that of the deeper water. By the summer of 1978, the salinity gradient of the upper layers had surpassed that of the deep water, yet the warm surface temperature preserved the density of the surface waters and the stratification of the water column. During the following winter, the non-fossil water cooled and the water column finally overturned.
Conditions for a water column overturn include a decrease in the water column's stability due to an increase in surface-water salinity resulting from a decline in the water level. These conditions do not occur in the summer, when the surface layers are warmed, but are more common in the winter. After many dry seasons, the surface layers become salty enough (and dense enough) for the mixing to reach the deeper fossil water body. A rainy season may cause the mixing to remain at the upper levels. For example, the sudden inflow of freshwater during the winter rains of 1980, caused the water column to remain stratified for three years.
The canal would affect the production of potash, whose primary commercial application is fertilizer. Potash, or potassium chloride (KC1), was first extracted in the 1930s by a mining engineer from Siberia. According to M.A. Novomeyski's process of selective evaporation the model for potash production used today by the Dead Sea Potash Works lake water is transferred to evaporation pans and the various salts precipitate as they reach saturation. Gypsum crystalizes first, then sodium chloride, then the mineral carnallite. Potash is extracted when the carnellite breaks down into its components; it is then further refined. The evaporation pans were originally located at the southern end of the lake. Changes in the Dead Sea have affected the extraction of potash. Because the southern basin is dry most of the year, the end brine must be pumped from farther away. Also, the increased salinity decreases the time for evaporation and has resulted in the precipitation of salts in pumps and conduits before they even reach the pans.
Since ancient times, people have recognized the unique characteristics of the Dead Sea. Aristotle (304-322 B.C.) was the first to tell the world about the salty body of water where no fish live and people float. Josefus Flavius (37-c.100), Galen (122-c.220) and Pliny the Elder (23-79) reported the therapeutic qualities of the water. King Solomon and Cleopatra used Dead Sea compounds to cure common ailments. Today, tourists flock to the Dead Sea for treatment of skin diseases and arthritis. The Dead Sea's low elevation, high salt concentration and high evaporation rate (about 2 billion cubic meters per year) create a thick haze which filters out UVB rays that cause sunburn. As a result, the air is oxygen-rich, pollen-free and filtered of harmful rays. Through a process of Natural Selective Ultraviolet Photo Therapy, Dead Sea specialists treat patients with psoriasis and joint problems. Dead Sea mud, found on the shores of the lake, is also good for the skin. The Ahava factory, located near the Dead Sea, manufactures mud and other skin products that are sold around the world.
9. Type of Habitat
The local climate of the Dead Sea is hot and arid, as the Judean Hills "block" the rain. The average annual rainfall at the surface is some 70 millimeters per year. The city of Sedom at the southern end has 300 cloudless days per year, a summertime relative humidity between 30 and 40 percent and an average monthly temperature of 16-34 degrees Celcius (61-93 degrees Fahrenheit). As a result, other than inflow from the Jordan River, there is not much fresh water that enters the lake. The Dead Sea is appropriately named because the number of life forms that can survive in the hyper saline water is limited.
The level of the lake was highest in recent history during the 1930s, before Israel and Jordan embarked on national water projects. The canal plan calls for refilling the lake to this historic level (393 meters below the Mediterranean) over a period of 10-20 years. Once this level is reached, the rate of inflow would have to be adjusted to preserve the water balance between fresh and salty water. The mean rate of inflow of Mediterranean seawater that would balance evaporation is only two-thirds as much as the inflow during the filling stage. As a result, the hydroelectric system would be less profitable than it had been during the initial years of open flow. The inflow would be regulated so that the rate of evaporation from the lake's surface can be increased. And, since seawater has a higher vapor pressure than the brine, scientists envision a layered effect rather than a deep mixing of the two solutions. A layer of seawater mixed with brine would rest on top of the dense hypersaline solution.
The level of the lake was highest in recent history during the 1930s, before Israel and Jordan embarked on national water projects. The canal plan calls for refilling the lake to this historic level (393 meters below the Mediterranean) over a period of 10-20 years. Once this level is reached, the rate of inflow would have to be adjusted to preserve the water balance between fresh and salty water. The mean rate of inflow of Mediterranean seawater that would balance evaporation is only two-thirds as much as the inflow during the filling stage. As a result, the hydroelectric system would be less profitable than it had been during the initial years of open flow. The inflow would be regulated so that the rate of evaporation from the lake's surface can be increased. And, since seawater has a higher vapor pressure than the brine, scientists envision a layered effect rather than a deep mixing of the two solutions. A layer of seawater mixed with brine would rest on top of the dense hypersaline solution.
8. Treaty
Israeli and Jordanian commitment to a large scale project such as a Med-Dead or Red-Dead Canal would be in the form of a treaty that would clearly detail each country's commitment to the construction and maintenance of the canal. Historically, there has been no coordinated system of water development in the region. Israel and Jordan have historically pursued their own water development projects independent of one another, even though the two countries share much of the water resources in the region. In 1953, U.S. president Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed Eric Johnston as his personal envoy to develop a regional solution to the water shortage in the Jordan Valley. Under the Johnston Plan, third parties and international authorities, rather than the parties most directly affected, determined water rights and proposed water development projects. The technical aspects of Johnston's plan were based on a study undertaken by the Tennessee Valley Authority -- at the request of the United Nations agency for Arab refugees -- which recommended diversion works, dams, reservoirs and irrigation. The plan specifically proposed Lake Tiberias as a storage reservoir; proposed an additional storage facility at Maqarin; suggested a series of dams and canals along the Jordan-Yarmuk system; and appointed an engineering board and a watermaster to supervise the water program.
Although the individual countries endorsed the Johnston Unified Water Planof 1955, the Arab League Council rejected the plan, and so Israel and Jordan went ahead with their own national plans. Israel adopted a Ten-Year Plan for unilateral water development, based on the development of a National Water Carrier to divert Lake Tiberias and Jordan waters to the coastal plain and the Negev Desert. Israel completed the carrier project in 1964. At the same time, Jordan proceeded with its own plans to develop the Yarmuk River. With the help of outside experts, Jordan established an agency to plan, coordinate and supervise the construction of the 110-km East Ghor Canal. Operational as of 1961, the canal uses gravity flow to divert Yarmuk waters for irrigation.
Both countries framed their own laws for water development. Under the Water Law of 1959, Israel placed ownership of all water resources under the Ministry of Agriculture. A water commission, headed by a cabinet-appointed water commissioner, operates within the ministry and coordinates all water institutions. The two most important institutions are Tahal, a government corporation in charge of planning and research, and Mekorot, a public company charged with the daily operations and maintenance of water development projects. Israel framed an additional law which states that water is a means of production to be utilized in the best and most efficient way to meet public needs and develop the country. The Jordan Valley Commission, established in 1973, is responsible for all aspects of Jordan Valley development. In 1976, the commission began work on the second phase of Yarmuk development the high dam at Maqarin (known as the Wahda or Unity Dam) which was to store water for irrigation and consumption; provide hydroelectricity for Jordan and Syria; and regulate the flow of water to Israel. Construction of the dam was never completed, since Israel withheld its approval of funding on the grounds that the Yarmuk contributes some three percent of Israel's national water supply, and regulation of this supply would affect Israel's ability to provide for its basic needs. The World Bank will not finance international water projects unless all riparian states agree to proceed.
Herein lies the problem with a mega project like a Med-Dead or Red-Dead canal. Such a project would not be cheap. Financing would have to come from the international community, particularly those countries or agencies interested in fostering Mideast peace. Grants and loans from the United States, Europe or World Bank would give economic viability to the project. The World Bank typically advocates water allocation based on economic efficiency. Additional economic studies would therefore need to prove that a Dead Sea hydro project is a beneficial economic activity. The U.S. also sees a critical role for USAID in the economic development of the Jordan Valley. Joint research for desalination technology and efficient water use would qualify the project for USAID's Middle East Regional Cooperation (MERC) program. This would help attract foreign investment. U.S. companies benefitting from consulting and contracting work may also help convince decision makers to support the project.
The 1994 Israel-Jordan peace agreement has been more successful than Johnston in setting a precedent for joint management of water resources and development. In addition to laying out allotments that more accurately reflect current needs, the bilateral agreement includes provisions for exchanging data, building storage facilities, protecting water resources and forming a joint water committee to oversee the implementation of the agreement. Cooperation among the parties themselves is the basis for the agreement. In the case of the canal, although it may be necessary to bring outside donors and engineers in, the parties themselves must craft an agreement to satisfy both countries goals to rejuvenate the Dead Sea region, and to alleviate water shortages.
Although the individual countries endorsed the Johnston Unified Water Planof 1955, the Arab League Council rejected the plan, and so Israel and Jordan went ahead with their own national plans. Israel adopted a Ten-Year Plan for unilateral water development, based on the development of a National Water Carrier to divert Lake Tiberias and Jordan waters to the coastal plain and the Negev Desert. Israel completed the carrier project in 1964. At the same time, Jordan proceeded with its own plans to develop the Yarmuk River. With the help of outside experts, Jordan established an agency to plan, coordinate and supervise the construction of the 110-km East Ghor Canal. Operational as of 1961, the canal uses gravity flow to divert Yarmuk waters for irrigation.
Both countries framed their own laws for water development. Under the Water Law of 1959, Israel placed ownership of all water resources under the Ministry of Agriculture. A water commission, headed by a cabinet-appointed water commissioner, operates within the ministry and coordinates all water institutions. The two most important institutions are Tahal, a government corporation in charge of planning and research, and Mekorot, a public company charged with the daily operations and maintenance of water development projects. Israel framed an additional law which states that water is a means of production to be utilized in the best and most efficient way to meet public needs and develop the country. The Jordan Valley Commission, established in 1973, is responsible for all aspects of Jordan Valley development. In 1976, the commission began work on the second phase of Yarmuk development the high dam at Maqarin (known as the Wahda or Unity Dam) which was to store water for irrigation and consumption; provide hydroelectricity for Jordan and Syria; and regulate the flow of water to Israel. Construction of the dam was never completed, since Israel withheld its approval of funding on the grounds that the Yarmuk contributes some three percent of Israel's national water supply, and regulation of this supply would affect Israel's ability to provide for its basic needs. The World Bank will not finance international water projects unless all riparian states agree to proceed.
Herein lies the problem with a mega project like a Med-Dead or Red-Dead canal. Such a project would not be cheap. Financing would have to come from the international community, particularly those countries or agencies interested in fostering Mideast peace. Grants and loans from the United States, Europe or World Bank would give economic viability to the project. The World Bank typically advocates water allocation based on economic efficiency. Additional economic studies would therefore need to prove that a Dead Sea hydro project is a beneficial economic activity. The U.S. also sees a critical role for USAID in the economic development of the Jordan Valley. Joint research for desalination technology and efficient water use would qualify the project for USAID's Middle East Regional Cooperation (MERC) program. This would help attract foreign investment. U.S. companies benefitting from consulting and contracting work may also help convince decision makers to support the project.
The 1994 Israel-Jordan peace agreement has been more successful than Johnston in setting a precedent for joint management of water resources and development. In addition to laying out allotments that more accurately reflect current needs, the bilateral agreement includes provisions for exchanging data, building storage facilities, protecting water resources and forming a joint water committee to oversee the implementation of the agreement. Cooperation among the parties themselves is the basis for the agreement. In the case of the canal, although it may be necessary to bring outside donors and engineers in, the parties themselves must craft an agreement to satisfy both countries goals to rejuvenate the Dead Sea region, and to alleviate water shortages.
7. Decision
Since a large scale desalination project would affect the populations of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, the Palestinian Authority should have some say in the negotiations. Israel may resist sharing administrative control over water, which it views as intimately connected to national security. Other countries that could become involved in a water distribution scheme if the canal system was expanded include Egypt, which controls the Nile River, and Lebanon, which controls the Litani River. Regional participation in a canal project would hopefully spark progress in the peace process.
6. Forum and Scope: Bilateral
A Dead Sea canal project would have to be negotiated between Jordan and Israel. There is no precedent for joint water development of the Jordan Rift Valley. Despite the fact that the two countries share a scarce common resource, they have pursued irrigation and diversion projects independent of one another for the past 50 years. In fact, in 1964, the Arab League countries attempted to sabotage Israel's National Water Carrier project by diverting Jordan headwaters. Israel anticipated Arab ambitions and wisely shifted the diversion point from the upper Jordan to Lake Tiberias. Given this history, a Med-Dead or Red-Dead Canal would mark the first cooperative water development project in the Jordan Valley. Such a project has potential for regional cooperation on large-scale desalination projects. For example, the point of intake for the original Med-Dead Canal would have run parallel to the Israel-Egypt border, which opens up the possibility of a tri-national (Egyptian-Israeli-Palestinian) agro-industrial complex providing a continuous supply of freshwater to agriculture in the Negev and Sinai Deserts. Similarly, a Red-Dead Sea route could lead to joint Jordanian-Israeli-Palestinian development of agriculture and industry in the Arava Valley. Even if large scale regional projects do not emerge, the Israeli and Jordanian governments must consider Palestinian participation in agreements/projects that affect the flow of water to Palestinian-occupied areas. Previous water allocation schemes, such as the Johnston Unified Water Plan of 1955 and the 1994 Israel-Jordan peace treaty failed to consider Palestinian needs. The Palestinian Authority must be involved in any canal project that could potentially divert fresh water resources to the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
5. Discourse and Status
Both Israel and Jordan have conducted studies of a Med-Dead or Red-Dead Canal that would reverse debilitating trends in the Dead Sea basin and have additional spinoff effects, like the promotion of tourism. The Harza group sees the Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal as the next step in the peace process, that will occur when Israel and Jordan jointly realize the development potential of the Jordan Valley. Cooperation on a canal project could lead to other cooperative sectoral development, such as the marketing and expansion of Dead Sea tourism. Construction on a canal has not yet begun. The proposed projects are costly and additional economic analyses are necessary. The lack of movement on the project may be contrasted with unilateral development projects in the 1950s like Israel's National Water Carrier (completed in 1964) and Jordan's 110-km East Ghor Canal on the Yarmuk River (completed in 1961) that were completed relatively quickly.
3. Related Cases: Venice
1. The Issue
Venice was among three cities being considered to hold
Expo 2000, a four month world exposition welcoming in the new
century. The exposition would bring in an estimated 200,000
visitors per day. There was question, however, as to whether
Expo 2000 would be a net economic stimulus for Venice or
whether the event's environmental impact would cause
irreparable ecological damage. The Venetian regional
government spent approximately $750,000 on a feasibility study,
whose conclusions left city officials opposed hosting Expo
2000. Eventually, the Expo was held elsewhere.
2.Description
Tourism has been part of the life of Venice for centuries.
However, in the last thirty years, Venice has faced grave
problems due to the tremendous volume of tourists each year.
Some fear that Venice will turn into a museum as its residents
flee to the mainland. One problem is the fact that many
tourists come to Venice on tour buses and spend little or no
money on hotels and restaurants. Moreover, tourism adds to the
overcrowding and litter. Efforts to control the flow of
tourists into the city led to rumors in 1990 that Venice would
put quotas on the number of visitors that could enter the
city.
Officials have considered several proposals to control the
traffic flows into Venice, including issuing one day passes
valid for items such as car parks and canal transport in order
to prevent tourists from waiting on long lines. Another
innovative idea is to have computer hookups that allow
potential visitors to know how crowded the city is. That such
measures are being discussed indicates the severity of the
problem.
Italy's foreign minister, Gianni De Michelis, in 1990, led
the campaign to host Expo 2000. The advocates of the plan, the
Venice 2000 Consortium, was led by Mr. De Michelis's brother
Cesare, and backed by 40 companies including Fiat, Benetton,
Olivetti, and Coca-Cola and Ferruzzi Finanziaria S.p.A. They
argued that this would held Venice's economic revival,
including improvements in telecommunication and transportation
infrastructure. Further, they also proposed a computerized
system to regulate the flow of tourists into Venice and argued
that visitors should be charged for a "Venice-card" to enter
the city, thereby bringing revenue.
On the other side of the spectrum, the Mayor of Venice,
backed by residents, art historians, and preservationists
worldwide, led the opposition to holding the expo. Even
without the expo, Venice is inundated each summer with roughly
100,000 tourists per day. The result: overcrowding of the
streets, excessive garbage, and destruction of monuments,
causing residents to flee the island at an alarming rate of
1,500 per year. The exposition would double the amount of peak
season tourism in Venice, more than likely, doubling the
problems associated with tourism.
3.Related Cases
CANCUN case
CUBA case
BERMUDA case
MEDIT case
EGYPT case
LILLE case
SYDNET case
JAMTOUR case
Keyword Clusters
(1): Trade Product = TOURism
(2): Domain = EUROPE
(3): Environmental Problem = Pollution Air [POLA]
4. Draft Author: Jackie Arrol
B. LEGAL Clusters
5. Discourse and Status: DISagreement and COMPlete
6. Forum and Scope: ITALY and NGO
The Italian government made the decision to withdraw
Venice's candidacy from the Expo 2000. Had they not withdrawn
the application, the final decision would have been entrusted
with the International Bureau of Expositions (BIE), a Paris
based Intergovernmental Agency, to vote on a site for Expo
2000. At the same time, the European Parliament voted in May
of 1990 to call Italy to withdraw its candidacy. The European
Community Environment Commissioner, Italian Carlo Ripa di Mean,
demanded full environmental studies for the plan. These and
other environmental groups pressured the Italian government
into their decision.
7.Decision Breadth: 47 (BIE members)
Although the Italian government made the decision, many
countries were affected. City residents and government
officials of Venice were affected the most as were all of the
47 members of the International Bureau of Expositions (B.I.E.)
were effected and Hannover and Toronto, two other cities
competing to host the Expo. Local and other businesses,
particularly those in the Venice 2000 Consortium, (Fiat,
Benetton and Ferruzzi Finanziaria), lost potential profits. On
the other hand, private organizations working through the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (Save Venice, Inc., Venice in Peril Fund, World
Monuments Fund, etc.) won a small victory for their efforts to
preserve Venice's priceless monuments and artwork.
8.Legal Standing: NGO
Due to the mounting opposition both internally and
externally (i.e., the European Economic Community, and external
preservationists), Italian Prime Minister Andreotti withdrew
Venice as a candidate for the Expo 2000.
C. GEOGRAPHIC Clusters
9.Geographic Locations
a. Geographic Domain : EUROPE
b. Geographic Site : Southern Europe [SEUR]
c. Geographic Impact : ITALY
10.Sub-National Factors: YES
The roles of the Venetian and the Italian governments were
very much a part of the dispute.
11.Type of Habitat: TEMPerate
D. TRADE Clusters
12.Type of Measure: Regulatory Ban [REGBAN]
13.Direct vs. Indirect Impacts: INDirect
Although this measure did not ban tourists, it would not
attract the same level of visitors to Venice as the Expo.
14.Relation of Measure to Environmental Impact
a. Directly Related : YES TOURism
b. Indirectly Related : YES HOTEL, etc.
c. Not Related : NO
d. Process Related : YES Pollution Air [POLA]
The decision to withdraw Venice as a candidate for Expo
2000 affected future tourism in Venice. The tourism industry
brings in tremendous amounts of revenue to the city. Further
environmental damage and overcrowding would have hurt Venice's
image as a tourist destination. It could also led to a greater
impact on the physical environment, perhaps contributing to the
sinking of Venice.
15.Trade Product Identification: TOURism
Tourism is by far the largest source of revenue to the
Venetian economy bringing in close to one and one half billion
per year (1986 figures).
16.Economic Data
17.Impact of Measure on Trade Competitiveness: BAN
When looking at the isolated case of the Expo 2000, trade
was effectively prohibited because business opportunities were
eliminated. On the other hand, one could argue that over the
long run trade was actually enhanced by protecting the Venetian
environment. Expo 2000 could have severely damaged the
physical environment, warding off much of Venice's potential
future tourism industry.
18.Industry Sector: TOURism
From small family-owned shops to the larger businesses,
the tourism industry generates economic benefits for Venice.
19.Exporter and Importer: ITALY and MANY
E.ENVIRONMENT Clusters
20.Environmental Problem Type: Pollution Sea [POLS]
Flooding of the polluted Venetian canals and lagoons is
perceived to be the greatest environmental threat to Venice,
followed by erosion caused by a high moisture content in the
air. Historically, travel and tourism considered by most to be
merely a nuisance. This view changed during the summer of
1989; mass tourism is now recognized as one of the greatest
threats to the city of Venice.
On July 15, 1989, a Pink Floyd concert was held on a
temporary floating stage facing St. Mark's Square.
Approximately 200,000 fans crowded the square for the rock
concert, many of them camping out for two days prior to the
concert and leaving trash everywhere. Venice was overcrowded
and completely unprepared, lacking public toilets.
Additionally, some fans climbed up ornate 6th-century pillars,
chipping off parts of the carvings and leaving marks from their
shoes and boots. It took three days and the assistance of
the Italian army to clean up the mess. Three years later,
and $46,000 later, the pillars were restored largely through
contributions from Save Venice. Although a great deal of the
erosion of the pillars had been caused by weathering, the
damage from the rock fans was not taken lightly by Venetians,
preservationists, and art historians alike.
In addressing the European Monuments Forum in 1990, John
Norwich, co-founder of Venice in Peril Fund discussed the Pink
Floyd concert that "rocked" the city. In order to further
demonstrate the severity of the damage tourism cause in Venice
and other cities, Norwich discussed a more typical day in
Venice in 1987 when 66,000 tourists mobbed the city. "So
overwhelmed was the Venice infrastructure that local
authorities finally had to close the causeway linking the city
to the mainland." Norwich has long recognized what he
considers to be a more insidious threat to Venice and other
cities than floods and acid rain: tourism pollution. Norwich
notes that large numbers of tourists erode buildings and "over
the years, millions of hands caressing the little statues along
the basin in Venice have smoothed them to the point where
certain features are virtually unrecognizable." Many of the
one-day visitors contribute little to Venice's economy.
Each year an estimated 7 million tourists visit Venice,
whose infrastructure is insufficient for the number of
visitors. Venice is plagued by too many tourists and suburban
flight of residents at an alarming rate of 1,500 residents each
year. Peter Fergusson, vice-chairman of the Boston chapter of
Save Venice, notes that the population has been reduced
drastically because of the lack of jobs, and "vacated
apartments have been bought up by foreigners as vacation
homes...[which] has driven up real estate prices and devastated
the economic infrastructure of small, family-owned shops."
Some fear that Venice will turn into a museum as its residents
flee to the mainland.
Spiraling rents, unruly crowds, increasing pollution
and a lack of shops except for those catering to
tourist have cut the city's population to barely
75,000 from about 200,000 at the height of Venice's
power in the 16th century.
Venice is visited primarily for its art history, but the
city's attractiveness has been cheapened by the over-crowding
on the city's streets and canals. Efforts to control the flow
of tourists into the city led to rumors in 1990 that Venice was
to put quotas on the number of visitors that could enter the
city. Recently, Venice has witnessed a flood of Eastern
Europeans, who arrive by bus and spend little money. City
officials reported that one day, 60,000 Czechoslovaks poured
into the city in 1,200 buses. In summary, the major
environmental problems include the following.
(1) Pollution, Land: caused largely by the massive
amounts of tourists, land pollution is one of the
primary areas of concern.
(2) Pollution, water: the lagoon has become more
polluted due to litter, caused in part by tourists,
and from illegal sewage dumping from overloaded
systems.
(3) Pollution, air: bus and car pollution from
tourists causes species loss and destruction of
monuments, buildings and artwork.
21.Name, Type, and Diversity of Species
Name: Many
Type: Many
Diversity: 1,820 higher plants per
10,000 km/sq (Italy)
There will be a loss of marine life (crabs, mussels, plant
life and other fisheries) resulting from pollution of lagoons.
Further, the long history of art and architecture are at risk
from the tourists.
22.Resource Impact and Effect: LOW and SCALE
23.Urgency and Lifetime: LOW and 100s of years
Although the Expo 2000 case was resolved, the everyday
problem of excessive tourism in Venice remains. The groups
working to preserve the integrity of Venice still have much to
do. The questions raised by the Expo, such as providing a
subway to Venice, requiring visitor cards and using the revenue
to preserve Venice, still have to be answered. The pollution
problems in Venice from mass tourism and lagoon pollution are
still critical issues that require long term planning.
24.Substitutes: Eco-Tourism [ECOTR]
VI. OTHER Factors
25.Culture: YES
The old structures of Venice are symbols of cultural
heritage for many Venetians to the people.
26.Trans-Border: NO
Given the city's vicinity to the Croatian and Slovenian
borders, this may become a trans-border problem.
27.Human Rights: NO
28.Relevant Literature
Achtner, Wolfgang. "Rome Cuts Venice's Lifeline." The
Independent (March 24, 1991): 13.
Booth, Cathy. "The Battle of Venice." Time 135 (May 28,
1990): 57.
Cerutti, Herbert. "Drafting a Solution." World Press Review
38 (March 1991): 55.
Claffey, Charles E. "Planning World's Fair Adds Threat
to Venice, Preservationists Say." The Boston Sunday
Globe (February 25, 1990): 17.
Collins, Guy. "Venice, Adrift in Tourist, May Turn Into a
Museum as Its Residents Flee." The Wall Street
Journal (January 10, 1992): A5B.
Errahmani, Abdelkader Brahim. "International Campaigns to
Safeguard the Cultural Heritage of Mankind." UNESCO
Courier (October 1990): 46.
Follain, John. "Italy Offers Venice For U.N. Conference." The
Reuter Library Report (February 24, 1992).
Glover, John. "Greenpeace Declares War on Porto Marghera."
Chemicalweek 147 (September 26, 1990): 30.
Greenberg, Peter S. "How Tourism and the Environment Are
Colliding." The Los Angeles Times (July 9, 1989):
Part VII.
Haberman, Clyde. "A Heavy Shadow Is Lifted, and Venice Sighs."
The New York Times (June 13, 1990): A11.
"Information Concerning the European Community Commission's
Plans for a Tourist Code of Conduct." WTO
Environment Committee, Fifth Meeting, Madrid Spain,
April 23-24, 1992, provisional agenda item 4 (b).
Johnson, Bruce. "Sinking Venice to be Saved with 'Thames
Barrier' Gates." The Daily Telegraph (February 15,
1992): 9.
Johnson, Marguerite. "Elbow-to-Elbow at the Louvre." Time
138 (July 29, 1991): 30-31.
Kariel, Herbert. "Tourism and Development: Perplexity or
Panacea?" Journal of Travel Research 28 (Summer
1989): 2-6.
Masello, David. "Ban the Boom?" Architectural Record
(March 1991): 68-9.
May, John. "World-Class Destruction." The New York Times
(February 17, 1992): A17.
Murray, William. "Letter From Venice." The New Yorker 62
(May 12, 1986).
"Not So Serenissima." New Scientist 125 (February 3, 1990):
23.
O'Neill, Bill. "Venice Turns the Tide on its Polluted Lagoon."
New Scientist 125 (February 3, 1990): 29.
Paterson, Harriet. "Vendetta will be the Death of Venice."
The Sunday Telegraph (November 3, 1991): 22.
Simons, Marlise. "Now, Venice Is Under Attack by Giant Algae."
The New York Times (June 13, 1989): A13.
Temin, Christin. "A Masked Ball to Help Save Venice."
The Boston Globe (April 17, 1991): 33.
Temin, Christine. "Venice; American Group Trying to Save the
City's Glorious Art and Architecture from the Ravages
of Time and Weather." The Boston Globe (March 15,
1992): B1.
Whitney, Craig. "Europeans Come to Aid of English Cathedral."
The New York Times (May 24, 1990): A12.
Venice was among three cities being considered to hold
Expo 2000, a four month world exposition welcoming in the new
century. The exposition would bring in an estimated 200,000
visitors per day. There was question, however, as to whether
Expo 2000 would be a net economic stimulus for Venice or
whether the event's environmental impact would cause
irreparable ecological damage. The Venetian regional
government spent approximately $750,000 on a feasibility study,
whose conclusions left city officials opposed hosting Expo
2000. Eventually, the Expo was held elsewhere.
2.Description
Tourism has been part of the life of Venice for centuries.
However, in the last thirty years, Venice has faced grave
problems due to the tremendous volume of tourists each year.
Some fear that Venice will turn into a museum as its residents
flee to the mainland. One problem is the fact that many
tourists come to Venice on tour buses and spend little or no
money on hotels and restaurants. Moreover, tourism adds to the
overcrowding and litter. Efforts to control the flow of
tourists into the city led to rumors in 1990 that Venice would
put quotas on the number of visitors that could enter the
city.
Officials have considered several proposals to control the
traffic flows into Venice, including issuing one day passes
valid for items such as car parks and canal transport in order
to prevent tourists from waiting on long lines. Another
innovative idea is to have computer hookups that allow
potential visitors to know how crowded the city is. That such
measures are being discussed indicates the severity of the
problem.
Italy's foreign minister, Gianni De Michelis, in 1990, led
the campaign to host Expo 2000. The advocates of the plan, the
Venice 2000 Consortium, was led by Mr. De Michelis's brother
Cesare, and backed by 40 companies including Fiat, Benetton,
Olivetti, and Coca-Cola and Ferruzzi Finanziaria S.p.A. They
argued that this would held Venice's economic revival,
including improvements in telecommunication and transportation
infrastructure. Further, they also proposed a computerized
system to regulate the flow of tourists into Venice and argued
that visitors should be charged for a "Venice-card" to enter
the city, thereby bringing revenue.
On the other side of the spectrum, the Mayor of Venice,
backed by residents, art historians, and preservationists
worldwide, led the opposition to holding the expo. Even
without the expo, Venice is inundated each summer with roughly
100,000 tourists per day. The result: overcrowding of the
streets, excessive garbage, and destruction of monuments,
causing residents to flee the island at an alarming rate of
1,500 per year. The exposition would double the amount of peak
season tourism in Venice, more than likely, doubling the
problems associated with tourism.
3.Related Cases
CANCUN case
CUBA case
BERMUDA case
MEDIT case
EGYPT case
LILLE case
SYDNET case
JAMTOUR case
Keyword Clusters
(1): Trade Product = TOURism
(2): Domain = EUROPE
(3): Environmental Problem = Pollution Air [POLA]
4. Draft Author: Jackie Arrol
B. LEGAL Clusters
5. Discourse and Status: DISagreement and COMPlete
6. Forum and Scope: ITALY and NGO
The Italian government made the decision to withdraw
Venice's candidacy from the Expo 2000. Had they not withdrawn
the application, the final decision would have been entrusted
with the International Bureau of Expositions (BIE), a Paris
based Intergovernmental Agency, to vote on a site for Expo
2000. At the same time, the European Parliament voted in May
of 1990 to call Italy to withdraw its candidacy. The European
Community Environment Commissioner, Italian Carlo Ripa di Mean,
demanded full environmental studies for the plan. These and
other environmental groups pressured the Italian government
into their decision.
7.Decision Breadth: 47 (BIE members)
Although the Italian government made the decision, many
countries were affected. City residents and government
officials of Venice were affected the most as were all of the
47 members of the International Bureau of Expositions (B.I.E.)
were effected and Hannover and Toronto, two other cities
competing to host the Expo. Local and other businesses,
particularly those in the Venice 2000 Consortium, (Fiat,
Benetton and Ferruzzi Finanziaria), lost potential profits. On
the other hand, private organizations working through the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (Save Venice, Inc., Venice in Peril Fund, World
Monuments Fund, etc.) won a small victory for their efforts to
preserve Venice's priceless monuments and artwork.
8.Legal Standing: NGO
Due to the mounting opposition both internally and
externally (i.e., the European Economic Community, and external
preservationists), Italian Prime Minister Andreotti withdrew
Venice as a candidate for the Expo 2000.
C. GEOGRAPHIC Clusters
9.Geographic Locations
a. Geographic Domain : EUROPE
b. Geographic Site : Southern Europe [SEUR]
c. Geographic Impact : ITALY
10.Sub-National Factors: YES
The roles of the Venetian and the Italian governments were
very much a part of the dispute.
11.Type of Habitat: TEMPerate
D. TRADE Clusters
12.Type of Measure: Regulatory Ban [REGBAN]
13.Direct vs. Indirect Impacts: INDirect
Although this measure did not ban tourists, it would not
attract the same level of visitors to Venice as the Expo.
14.Relation of Measure to Environmental Impact
a. Directly Related : YES TOURism
b. Indirectly Related : YES HOTEL, etc.
c. Not Related : NO
d. Process Related : YES Pollution Air [POLA]
The decision to withdraw Venice as a candidate for Expo
2000 affected future tourism in Venice. The tourism industry
brings in tremendous amounts of revenue to the city. Further
environmental damage and overcrowding would have hurt Venice's
image as a tourist destination. It could also led to a greater
impact on the physical environment, perhaps contributing to the
sinking of Venice.
15.Trade Product Identification: TOURism
Tourism is by far the largest source of revenue to the
Venetian economy bringing in close to one and one half billion
per year (1986 figures).
16.Economic Data
17.Impact of Measure on Trade Competitiveness: BAN
When looking at the isolated case of the Expo 2000, trade
was effectively prohibited because business opportunities were
eliminated. On the other hand, one could argue that over the
long run trade was actually enhanced by protecting the Venetian
environment. Expo 2000 could have severely damaged the
physical environment, warding off much of Venice's potential
future tourism industry.
18.Industry Sector: TOURism
From small family-owned shops to the larger businesses,
the tourism industry generates economic benefits for Venice.
19.Exporter and Importer: ITALY and MANY
E.ENVIRONMENT Clusters
20.Environmental Problem Type: Pollution Sea [POLS]
Flooding of the polluted Venetian canals and lagoons is
perceived to be the greatest environmental threat to Venice,
followed by erosion caused by a high moisture content in the
air. Historically, travel and tourism considered by most to be
merely a nuisance. This view changed during the summer of
1989; mass tourism is now recognized as one of the greatest
threats to the city of Venice.
On July 15, 1989, a Pink Floyd concert was held on a
temporary floating stage facing St. Mark's Square.
Approximately 200,000 fans crowded the square for the rock
concert, many of them camping out for two days prior to the
concert and leaving trash everywhere. Venice was overcrowded
and completely unprepared, lacking public toilets.
Additionally, some fans climbed up ornate 6th-century pillars,
chipping off parts of the carvings and leaving marks from their
shoes and boots. It took three days and the assistance of
the Italian army to clean up the mess. Three years later,
and $46,000 later, the pillars were restored largely through
contributions from Save Venice. Although a great deal of the
erosion of the pillars had been caused by weathering, the
damage from the rock fans was not taken lightly by Venetians,
preservationists, and art historians alike.
In addressing the European Monuments Forum in 1990, John
Norwich, co-founder of Venice in Peril Fund discussed the Pink
Floyd concert that "rocked" the city. In order to further
demonstrate the severity of the damage tourism cause in Venice
and other cities, Norwich discussed a more typical day in
Venice in 1987 when 66,000 tourists mobbed the city. "So
overwhelmed was the Venice infrastructure that local
authorities finally had to close the causeway linking the city
to the mainland." Norwich has long recognized what he
considers to be a more insidious threat to Venice and other
cities than floods and acid rain: tourism pollution. Norwich
notes that large numbers of tourists erode buildings and "over
the years, millions of hands caressing the little statues along
the basin in Venice have smoothed them to the point where
certain features are virtually unrecognizable." Many of the
one-day visitors contribute little to Venice's economy.
Each year an estimated 7 million tourists visit Venice,
whose infrastructure is insufficient for the number of
visitors. Venice is plagued by too many tourists and suburban
flight of residents at an alarming rate of 1,500 residents each
year. Peter Fergusson, vice-chairman of the Boston chapter of
Save Venice, notes that the population has been reduced
drastically because of the lack of jobs, and "vacated
apartments have been bought up by foreigners as vacation
homes...[which] has driven up real estate prices and devastated
the economic infrastructure of small, family-owned shops."
Some fear that Venice will turn into a museum as its residents
flee to the mainland.
Spiraling rents, unruly crowds, increasing pollution
and a lack of shops except for those catering to
tourist have cut the city's population to barely
75,000 from about 200,000 at the height of Venice's
power in the 16th century.
Venice is visited primarily for its art history, but the
city's attractiveness has been cheapened by the over-crowding
on the city's streets and canals. Efforts to control the flow
of tourists into the city led to rumors in 1990 that Venice was
to put quotas on the number of visitors that could enter the
city. Recently, Venice has witnessed a flood of Eastern
Europeans, who arrive by bus and spend little money. City
officials reported that one day, 60,000 Czechoslovaks poured
into the city in 1,200 buses. In summary, the major
environmental problems include the following.
(1) Pollution, Land: caused largely by the massive
amounts of tourists, land pollution is one of the
primary areas of concern.
(2) Pollution, water: the lagoon has become more
polluted due to litter, caused in part by tourists,
and from illegal sewage dumping from overloaded
systems.
(3) Pollution, air: bus and car pollution from
tourists causes species loss and destruction of
monuments, buildings and artwork.
21.Name, Type, and Diversity of Species
Name: Many
Type: Many
Diversity: 1,820 higher plants per
10,000 km/sq (Italy)
There will be a loss of marine life (crabs, mussels, plant
life and other fisheries) resulting from pollution of lagoons.
Further, the long history of art and architecture are at risk
from the tourists.
22.Resource Impact and Effect: LOW and SCALE
23.Urgency and Lifetime: LOW and 100s of years
Although the Expo 2000 case was resolved, the everyday
problem of excessive tourism in Venice remains. The groups
working to preserve the integrity of Venice still have much to
do. The questions raised by the Expo, such as providing a
subway to Venice, requiring visitor cards and using the revenue
to preserve Venice, still have to be answered. The pollution
problems in Venice from mass tourism and lagoon pollution are
still critical issues that require long term planning.
24.Substitutes: Eco-Tourism [ECOTR]
VI. OTHER Factors
25.Culture: YES
The old structures of Venice are symbols of cultural
heritage for many Venetians to the people.
26.Trans-Border: NO
Given the city's vicinity to the Croatian and Slovenian
borders, this may become a trans-border problem.
27.Human Rights: NO
28.Relevant Literature
Achtner, Wolfgang. "Rome Cuts Venice's Lifeline." The
Independent (March 24, 1991): 13.
Booth, Cathy. "The Battle of Venice." Time 135 (May 28,
1990): 57.
Cerutti, Herbert. "Drafting a Solution." World Press Review
38 (March 1991): 55.
Claffey, Charles E. "Planning World's Fair Adds Threat
to Venice, Preservationists Say." The Boston Sunday
Globe (February 25, 1990): 17.
Collins, Guy. "Venice, Adrift in Tourist, May Turn Into a
Museum as Its Residents Flee." The Wall Street
Journal (January 10, 1992): A5B.
Errahmani, Abdelkader Brahim. "International Campaigns to
Safeguard the Cultural Heritage of Mankind." UNESCO
Courier (October 1990): 46.
Follain, John. "Italy Offers Venice For U.N. Conference." The
Reuter Library Report (February 24, 1992).
Glover, John. "Greenpeace Declares War on Porto Marghera."
Chemicalweek 147 (September 26, 1990): 30.
Greenberg, Peter S. "How Tourism and the Environment Are
Colliding." The Los Angeles Times (July 9, 1989):
Part VII.
Haberman, Clyde. "A Heavy Shadow Is Lifted, and Venice Sighs."
The New York Times (June 13, 1990): A11.
"Information Concerning the European Community Commission's
Plans for a Tourist Code of Conduct." WTO
Environment Committee, Fifth Meeting, Madrid Spain,
April 23-24, 1992, provisional agenda item 4 (b).
Johnson, Bruce. "Sinking Venice to be Saved with 'Thames
Barrier' Gates." The Daily Telegraph (February 15,
1992): 9.
Johnson, Marguerite. "Elbow-to-Elbow at the Louvre." Time
138 (July 29, 1991): 30-31.
Kariel, Herbert. "Tourism and Development: Perplexity or
Panacea?" Journal of Travel Research 28 (Summer
1989): 2-6.
Masello, David. "Ban the Boom?" Architectural Record
(March 1991): 68-9.
May, John. "World-Class Destruction." The New York Times
(February 17, 1992): A17.
Murray, William. "Letter From Venice." The New Yorker 62
(May 12, 1986).
"Not So Serenissima." New Scientist 125 (February 3, 1990):
23.
O'Neill, Bill. "Venice Turns the Tide on its Polluted Lagoon."
New Scientist 125 (February 3, 1990): 29.
Paterson, Harriet. "Vendetta will be the Death of Venice."
The Sunday Telegraph (November 3, 1991): 22.
Simons, Marlise. "Now, Venice Is Under Attack by Giant Algae."
The New York Times (June 13, 1989): A13.
Temin, Christin. "A Masked Ball to Help Save Venice."
The Boston Globe (April 17, 1991): 33.
Temin, Christine. "Venice; American Group Trying to Save the
City's Glorious Art and Architecture from the Ravages
of Time and Weather." The Boston Globe (March 15,
1992): B1.
Whitney, Craig. "Europeans Come to Aid of English Cathedral."
The New York Times (May 24, 1990): A12.
3. Related Cases: Gulf War
1. The Issue
During the Persian Gulf War from the fall of late 1990 to early 1991, Iraq embarked on a systematic destruction of Kuwait's oil industry, and Iraqi forces set fire to 789 individual Kuwaiti oil wells. The attendant results were catastrophic both from an economic and ecological standpoint. Kuwait's economy suffered a precipitous drop in export revenues immediately after the Gulf War, due to the inability to make up the production differences from the damaged oil wells. The ecological landscape of Kuwait and the Persian Gulf was irrevocably damaged due to the destruction unleashedsed by the burning oil wells, and it may be generations before this environment is restored to its pre-war balance. This case study examines the impact of the Gulf War on the Kuwaiti economic and ecological systems.
A picture taken from a burning Kuwaiti oil well
2.
Description
Prior to Iraq's invasion in August 1990, Kuwait was one of the most prosperous nations in the world, due to its small population (roughly 1.7 million) and its inordinate oil reserves (Kuwait controlled ten percent of the world's oil reserves) which generated billions and billions of export revenues. Kuwait's staggering wealth before the Iraqi invasion was due to the rise in global oil prices during the mid-1970s and the steadily increasing production of Kuwait's oil reserves of 94,525 billion barrels.
By the eve of the Iraqi invasion, Kuwait had set production quotas to almost 1.9 million barrels per day, which coincided with a sharp drop in the price of oil. By the summer of 1990, Kuwaiti overproduction had become a serious point of contention with Iraq, as it needed to service almost $70 billion in debt it had accrued as a result of financing the Iran-Iraq War. While Iraqi officials continued to warn Kuwait that it would not tolerate the artificial depression of oil prices due to Kuwaiti overproduction, Kuwait did not heed these admonitions. Some analysts have speculated that one of Saddam Hussein's main motivations in invading Iraq was to punish the ruling al-Sabah family in Kuwait for not stopping its policy of overproduction.
The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 became a seminal event in modern Middle Eastern history, and became the first time that an Arab nation usurped the territorial integrity of a fellow Arab state. The Gulf crisis also became the watershed event for the post-Cold War era, as many believed that it would be close to impossible to craft a truly global coalition to combat Iraqi aggression in the Persian Gulf. During the coalition buildup of Desert Shield, much was made over the potential use of Iraq's putative weapons of mass destruction (WMD) arsenal and the concomitant effects of such weapons. In addition, some experts predicted that the coalition was in for a protracted battle, due to the numerical strength of the Iraqi armed forces and due to Saddam Hussein's penchant for accepting high casualties in combat, a prospect that most coalition members were not willing to even contemplate.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
At the beginning of the crisis, little attention was devoted to the potential impact of a sustained, combined arms form of warfare on the regional environment. However, many environmentalists and concerned scientists soon began to discuss the potential ramifications of such activity, given the the scale of the oil holdings in the Kuwaiti theater of operations (KTO). By December 1990, experts began to postulate as to the exact magnitude a deliberate plan of eco-terrorism by Iraq, and analyses varied that this action would cause the release of anywhere from three million to almost ten million barrels of oil per day. Dr. Paul Crutzen, a top scientist at the Max Planck Institute in Germany, estimated that the sustained burning of ten million barrels of oil per day for one hundred days would effectuate environmental hazards on an order of magnitude greater than any prior man-made environmental disaster. He postulated that such a campaign would produce a blanket of soot and smoke that would cover half of the northern hemisphere. After the first oil wells were discovered ablaze in January 1991, Carl Sagan stated "'We think the net effects will be very similar to the explosion of the Indonesian volcano Tambora in 1815, which resulted in the year 1816 being known as the year without a summer.'" Sagan was concerned that the resulting soot and plumes from the oil fires would wreak havoc on the monsoon patterns in southern and central Asia, thereby shutting off rains and leaving hundreds of millions of people in the region with nothing to harvest. Dire predictions such as these were generated on the basis data generated from the computer modeling data of the ecological results of a Soviet-American nuclear exchange, or the concept which became known as "nuclear winter".
By February 1991, reports indicated that up to 190 oil wells had been set ablaze by Iraqi occupation forces in Kuwait, and after the coalition forces ejected Iraqi troops from the KTO in mid March 1991, almost 800 oil wells had been given similar treatment. It was soon estimated that six million barrels of oil were burning per day circa March 1991 in Kuwait, and the initial assessment of the environmental impact was staggering. Concerns ranged from across a wide variety of environmental disasters. The amount of soot generated was one such cause of concern, as one gram of soot can block out two-thirds of the light falling over an area of eight to ten square meters. Accordingly, scientists calculated that the release of two million barrels of oil per day could generate a plume of smoke and soot which would cover an area of half of the United States. Weather patterns and climactic conditions could have carried such a plume great distances so as to severely hamper agricultural production in remote areas of the world.
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Another concern centered around the effects of the height of such a smoke plume, where upon reaching a specified height (35,000 to 40,000 feet) and temperature (400 degrees Celsius), such a plume would cause a serious erosion of the ozone layer which could be highly hazardous to plant and animal life. Scientists attempted to draw attention to the potential effects of acid rain from the Kuwaiti oil fires. Kuwaiti crude contains 2.44% sulfur and .14% nitrogen, and it was estimated that the daily sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxide emissions would be between 750 and 10,000 tons per day, thereby causing inordinate damage to agricultural production in the region.
In February 1992 a Wall Street Journal article offered data from a scientific that rebutted the fatalistic projections made directly after the war. While the article noted that the Kuwaiti oil fires significantly impaced the Persian Gulf, their scope was not as deleterious to other regions of the world. The study estimated that the fires produced almost 3,400 metric tons of soot per day, which was significantly lower than earlier projections. The researchers found that the smoke never rose more than six kilometers into the atmosphere, even though smoke plumes traveled 1,600 kilometers. However, the Kuwaiti smoke plumes were short-lived in the atmosphere because they were dissipated by clouds and precipitation. The study noted that the rate of sulfur dioxide emissions from the oil fires amounted to 57% of that from all U.S. electric utilities. In addition, the dissemination of other gases such as carbon monoxide, ozone, and oxides such as nitrogen and carbon dioxide, were "well below typical urban levels" in the United States.
Despite the findings of this study, the magnitude of the damage to the Gulf ecosystem continued to flow in to researchers and scientists. Perhaps the greatest fear from the Kuwaiti oil fires was effect of the vast amount of raw crude that seeped into the Persian Gulf. The Gulf already comprised one of the most fragile ecosystems on the planet, and prior to the Iraqi invasion this ecosystem was attempting to recover from the damage inflicted upon it during the Iran-Iraq War. As a result of the Iraqi scorched earth policy, it was estimated that 250 million gallons of oil - more than 20 times the amount spilled in the Exxon Valdez disaster in Alaska - flowed into the Gulf, causing irreperable harm to the biological diversity and physical integrity of the Gulf. Oil soaked over 440 miles of Saudi Arabia's coastline. Due to the Gulf's sluggish circulation system, it will take years before the oil is swept away by the natural forces of the water.
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By November 1991 the last of the burning oil wells had been capped, but the scale of damage to the Kuwaiti economy and ecological environment was just beginning to be assessed. Hundreds of miles of the Kuwaiti desert were left uninhabitable, due to the accumulation of oil lakes and of soot from the burning wells. The impact of the oil spillage on the biodiversity of the Gulf has yet to be fully assessed, yet based on the biologics that inhabitated the region prior to the Gulf War, it can be adduced that they are now at serious risk. One to two million of migratory birds visit the Gulf each year on their way to northern breeding grounds, and it has been documented that thousands of comorants, migratory birds indigenous to the Gulf region, died as a result of exposure to oil or from polluted air.
The fishing industry in the Gulf was deleteriously affected by the oil spillage into the Gulf, which was important due to the fact that it is one of the most vibrant productive activties in the region after the production of oil. As an example of the vibrancy of this industry, prior to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait the Gulf had yielded harvests of marine life of up to 120,000 tons of fish a year; after the oil spillage, these numbers significantly dropped. In addition to this degredation to an economic activity, many people living on the Gulf coast depend on fishing as purely a subsistence activity, and the oil spillage has disrupted the spawning of shrimp and fish. Other species effected by the oil spillage included green and hawksbill turtles (already classified as endangered species), leatherback and loggerhead turtles, dugongs, whales, dolphins, migratory birds like comorants and flamingoes, and sea snakes.
Go to TED case on Green Bill turtles
Interestingly, environmentalists have recently raised concerns that 'normal' pollution in the Gulf (caused by frequent spillages of oil and emissions of dirty ballast from passing tankers) poses a greater environmental threat than any damage inflicted by the Kuwaiti oil fires. Official statistics indicate that the Gulf is polluted by 1.14 million tons of oil per year (equivalent to 25,000 barrels of oil per day), which is dispersed by 40 percent of the more than 6,000 oil tankers which transverse the Gulf each year. Abdul-Rahman al-Awadi, executive secretary of the Regional Organization for the Marine Environment (ROPME) lamented "'If we go on like this, we won't need a war to complete the destruction of our marine environment - normal (tanker) operations will do it.'"
Another concern raised about the spillage of oil into the Gulf stemmed from the overall reliance on water in the region. Seventy to ninety percent of the populace depend on desalination plants for fresh water supplies, and the oil spillage threatened the precious desalination plants, as well as power plants and industrial facilities all along the Gulf coast. As to the direct impact on human health, health experts noted that the residual effects of hydrocarbons in the air or in peoples' bodies would precipitate a dramatic increase in lung cancer and birth defects across the region in as little as fifeteen years. Other scientists predicted that Kuwait's death rate could rise by as much as ten percent within a short time frame. There has been intense speculation in the United States that the mysterious "Gulf War Syndrome", which currently affects almost 10,000 U.S. troops who served in the Gulf, may have been caused by the release of chemicals from the burning oil wells.
In 1993 Farouq al-Baz, director of Boston University's Center for Remote Sensing, stated that more than 240 oil lakes had been discovered in the Kuwaiti desert. He added "'Birds, plants and marine life are still suffering from the effects of the war and damage to the desert itself could persist for decades.'" In addition, the mixture of sand and oil residue in the Kuwaiti desert created large areas which effectively had been reduced to semi-asphalt surfaces.
By the fall of 1995, disturbing reports were filed from Kuwait claiming that sunken Iraqi warships filled with chemical munitions off the coast of Kuwait posed a serious and urgent threat to the regional environment. While the Kuwaiti government did not directly mention the chemical munitions on the sunken Iraqi ships (due for political reasons, and for a lack of hard data confirming the existence of such munitions), the Kuwaitis dispatched a Dutch salvage team to investigate these allegations. After learning of such reports, environmentalists began to fear the possible polution of the Gulf from the chemical munitions, and expressed their concern over the potential impact on the Gulf desalinization plants. In addition to these concerns, experts also warned that up to 100,000 tons of crude oil could be released from the Amuriyan, a sunken Iraqi tanker in the northern Gulf. The Amuriyan lies half-submerged in about 120 feet of international waters almost 15 miles northeast of Kuwait's Bubiyan Island in the northern Gulf, close the Shatt al-Arab estuary.
By September 1995, Kuwait filed a $385 million claim against Iraq for compensation for environmental damage due to Iraq's occupation of Kuwait. More specifically, Kuwait submitted five claims to the United Nations for environmental damages covering health, costal areas, maritime environment, ground water resources, and desert environmental damages.
ECONOMIC IMPACT
While the environmental impact of the Iraqi scorched earth policy has been well documented, the economic impact of this Iraqi policy has not been as well investigated. At the most basic level, the Iraqi acts severly deflated the Kuwaiti economy for almost a two year period from early 1991 to late 1992, as the Kuwaiti oil industry suffered a massive drop in production due to the destruction imposed on so many oil wells. Table 1 reflects the impact the Gulf War had on the Kuwaiti oil industry.
Table 1 Source: International Financial Statistics, August 1995
Table 2 displays the precipitous drop in the Kuwaiti Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP) from the loss of oil revenues as a result of the Gulf War.
Table 2 Source: International Financial Statistics, August 1995
Kuwait's GDP increased from 1993 to 1995 as a result of the resurgence of its oil industry. Oil exports are once again on the rise after they hit an all time low between 1990-1991, and Kuwait expects to produce three million barrels per day by 2005. Kuwait currently produces almost two and one half million barrels per day. In spite of the current strength of the Kuwaiti oil industry, Kuwait has accumulated almost $40 billion in external debt in order to finance the cost of internal reconstruction. Prior to the Gulf War, Kuwait's public debt hovered at a more manageable amount of eight billion dollars.
CONCLUSIONS
Kuwait has suffered severe economic and environmental dislocations as a resultof Iraq's scorched earth policy during its occupation of Kuwait during the Gulf War. The forecast for the recovery of Kuwait's economy appears optimistic, given the increased productive capacity of the oil industry. However, it may be years, if not generations, before the full extent of the damage to the physical integrity of the region and to human, animal, and plant life, is fully assessed. These environmental costs may have repercussions not only for the region, but for other countries in central and south Asia. For example, some scientists have speculated that a 1994 cyclone in Bangladesh which killed 100,000 people was precipitated due to climactic changes from the Kuwait oil fires. The conflagration in Kuwait demonstrates the danger in conducting large scale modern combat in an environmentally fragile area, and shows how vulnerable all oil-producing nations are to this type of environmental and economic disaster in the future.
At a bare minimum, the Kuwaiti environmental disaster has galvanized Gulf policymakers to pay closer attention to the potential economic and environmental ramifications of conflict in their region. Kuwait and the other Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) member states have sought to tighten existing environmental regulations so as to preclude any similar environmental disasters in the future. In November 1995, the GCC states met to discuss the prospects for unifying their environmental laws, drafting new uniform standards for environmental protection, and setting up environmental safeguards in the Gulf.
3. Related Cases
Key Words: OIL PERSIAN
4. Author
Javed Ali, Comparative and Regional Studies, Middle East
II.
LEGAL CLUSTER
5. Discourse and Status: DISagreement and COMPlete
6. Forum and Scope: KUWAit and UNILateral
While there is no dedicated forum for Kuwait to air its grievances against Iraq, it has been able to damage claims to a United Nations Gulf War Compensation Committee.
7. Decision Breadth: Immediate effects on KUWAit; residual effects on other GULF countries.
8. Legal Standing: LAW
As mentioned above, while there is no specific treaty that covers Iraq's actions against Kuwait, Kuwait has been able to submit claims to a UN compensation committee. In addition, the GCC nations have met in an attempt to coordinate environmental regulations for the entire region, and have attempted to establish environmental safeguards throughout the region.
III.
GEOGRAPHIC CLUSTER
9. Geographic Locations
Geographic Domain: MIDEAST
Geographic SITE: PERSIAN gulf
Geographic Impact: KUWAit
10. Sub-National Factors
SUB-STATE: YES
The oil fires in Kuwait have severely damaged the economic and environmental infrastructure of Kuwait, and the damage assessments are only now being calculated.
11. Types of Habitat
HABITAT TYPE: OCEAN
KEY PRODUCTS: Aquatic and marine life, coral reefs, migratory birds, snakes, turtles, etc.
IV. TRADE CLUSTER
12. Type of Measure: NAPP
There is no type of trade measure in effect as a result of the Kuwaiti oil fires.
13. Direct vs. Indirect Impacts: INDirect
14. Relation of Trade Measure to Resource Impact
Directly Related to Product:
15. Trade Product Identification: OIL
16. Economic Data
2.5 million barrels of oil per day, accounting for roughly 95% of $12.337 billion in export revenue (1995 data).
Kuwait has a labor force of roughly 570,00, almost 70% of which is comprised of non-Kuwaiti foreign nationals (who depend on their relatively generous salaries to remit back to their families in other Arab nations or in various South Asian countries like Bangladesh, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Thailand). The Kuwaiti oil fires caused a precipitous drop in foreign worker remittances to their homelands, which in turn caused their families to suffer from a lack of sustained income.
17. Impact of Trade Restriction
In direct damage costs, Kuwait calculates that it suffered $170 billion in losses, and that this figure may rise to as high as $700 billion. In order to pay for reconstruction costs while Kuwait suffered a precipitous decline in oil revenues from August 1990 to early 1992, Kuwait has amassed an enormous $70 billion dollar debt, an almost tenfold increase from its prewar debt of $8 billion.
It will take years, if not generations, to assess the environmental damage costs of the Kuwaiti oil fires, and in September 1995 Kuwait just recently submitted a $385 million environmental damage claim against Iraq to the UN.
The competitive effect of the Kuwaiti oil fires on Kuwait has also yet to be clearly assessed. Kuwait's pre-war production levels fell from 1.9 million barrels per day after the Iraqi invasion. It was only until mid 1992 that the Kuwaiti oil industry was able to launch a vigorous revitalization program. Current production stands at roughly 2.5 million barrels per day, and the Kuwaitis estimate that by 2005, it can sustain levels of three million barrels per day.
18. Industry Sector: OILGAS
19. Exporters and Importers:KUWAit and other GULF countries
V. ENVIRONMENT CLUSTERS
20. Environmental Problem Type: POLA, POLL, POLS
The Kuwaiti oil fires generated a host of environmental crises, which effected the air, land, and water in Kuwait and around the Gulf. The burning oil wells released harmful gases and oxides into the atmosphere, and generated enormous smoke plumes that carried soot and ashes over great distances (almost 1,600 kilometers). The oil fires caused almost one and one half billion barrels of oil to flow in to the Persian Gulf, which covered almost 440 miles of Gulf coastline. The contamination of the Gulf threatened the existence of a diverse expanse of animal life,
21. Number of Species A wide variety of flora and fauna are at risk due to the oil spillage and pollution in the Gulf caused by the Kuwaiti oil fires. A partial list includes various types of turtles, fish, migratory birds, whales, dugongs, and coral reefs.
22. Impact and Effect
Impact: EXTREMELY HIGH
Effect: 10s of Years, if not entire generations
23. Urgency and Lifetime
1. Urgency: EXTREMELY HIGH
2. Lifetime of Species:
24. Substitutes: CONSERVATION
Timely conservation efforts may lessen the deleterious impact of the Kuwaiti oil fires, but the degree will be minimal at best, since the majority of the damage has been inflicted. It is only the residual effects that can now only either be controlled or prevented.
Substitutes: SYNTH
The broadening of the Kuwaiti export base, so as to halt its overreliance on the production and export of oil, may help to mitigate any future environmental disasters in the future. This message can be transmitted to most of the Arab OPEC nations, who continue to rely almost singularly on oil revenues to finance development and generate government revenues. However, such a transition may not be imminent, due to the fact that such a diversification policy would entail widespread economic changes (e.g., privatization) and political changes (e.g., democratization) that are currently untenable.
VI. OTHER FACTORS
25. Culture: YES
Iraq's deliberate act of aggression and eco-terrorism against Kuwait was a seminal event in modern Arab history, for it represented the first invasion of one sovereign Arab state against another. The possibility of such an event was heretofore dismissed as impossible, given the cultural affinity between all Arabs. Therefore, while individual Arab states may have had grievances vis-…-vis each others, most Arabists predicted that such differences would never manifest themselves through armed combat. Saddam Hussein broke this Arab cultural taboo, and his act of aggression against his fellow Arab Kuwaitis came a serious shock to any lingering notions of pan-Arab unity (if there was any resonance of this left by the time of the Gulf War). Prior acts of Iraqi of profligate acts of violence against Iranians and Kurds did not alarm fellow Arabs, since these peoples were not Arab, and Saddam Hussein had championed himself as the "Sword of the Arabs". Moreover, Hussein's brutal repression of his own Arab countrymen was tolerated, for every nation in the region repressed internal dissent, each to a varying degree.
26. Human Rights: YES
Iraq's aggression against Kuwait was a violation of the UN Charter, and for causing an act of "aggressive war", Saddam Hussein could have been indicted as a war criminal. Furthermore, during its occupation of Kuwait, Iraq forces engaged in the systematic denial of human rights to Kuwaiti citizens, as thousands, were murdered, tortured, abused, raped, jailed, and looted. As Iraq's commander in chief, Saddam Hussein bears direct responsibility for these actions.
Iraq's systematic campaign of eco-terrorism also amounted to a flouting of human rights, as tens of thousands of innocent civilians suffered the deleterious effects from the Kuwaiti oil fires. The most tragic aspect of the oil fires are the residual effects that will continue to manifest themselves for years, if not generations, in Kuwait, the Gulf, and around other parts of the world.
27. Trans-Boundary Issues: YES
The devastating effects of the Kuwaiti oil fires have not been limited to Kuwaiti proper, as the entire Gulf physical landscape and ecosystem has been negatively impacted. As stated above, almost 440 miles of Gulf coastline has been soaked with oil from the burning wells, and the smoke plumes generated from the fires carried up to 1,600 kilometers. Some scientists have calculated that the Kuwaiti oil fires precipitated climactic changes were significant enough to cause environmental turbulence, such as the 1994 cyclones in Bangladesh that killed over 100,000 people. It will takes years to calculate the precise trans-national effect of the Kuwait oil fires.
28. Relevant Literature
Cable News Network (CNN) Transcript #358. "Scientists Say Persian Gulf Shoreline Still Devastated", May 11, 1993.
CIA World Factbook, 1995 (Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1995).
Cooper, John. "Kuwait: Project Plans Add to Oil Asset Value", Middle East Economic Digest, April 14, 1995.
Ersan, Inal. "Much Gulf War Pollution Cleared but Leaks Pose Risk", Reuters, August 24, 1995.
Kemp, Penny. "For Generations to Come" in Phyllis Bennis and Michael Moushabec, Beyond the Storm (Brooklyn, New York: Olive Branch Press, 1991), p. 327.
Mardini, Ahmad. "Gulf Environment: Gulf Takes a Unified Stand on Environment", Inter Press Service, September 11, 1995.
Naj, Amal Kumar. "Kuwait - Oil Well Fires Did Little Damage To the Global Environment, Study Says", The Wall Street Journal, May 15, 1992.
Reuters. "Kuwait Environment Still Scarred by Gulf War", October 27, 1993.
Reuters. "Kuwait Oil Output Nears Pre-Gulf War Levels", December 26, 1993.
Reuters. "Kuwait Cabinet Debates Reports on Gulf Chemicals", September 24, 1995.
Reuters World Service. "Kuwait to Ask UN to Help Check Iraqi Sunk Boats", September 25, 1995.
United Press International (untitled), November 1, 1995.
The Xinhua News Agency. "Kuwait Claims 385 Million Dollars for Environmental Damage", September 5, 1995.
Zimmer, Carl. "Ecowar", Discover, January 1992, p. 37.
ENDNOTES
Penny Kemp, "For Generations to Come" in Phyllis Bennis and Michael Moushabec, Beyond the Storm (Brooklyn, New York: Olive Branch Press, 1991), p. 327.
"Kuwait Oil Output Nears Pre-Gulf War Levels", Reuters, December 26, 1993.
Kemp, op. cit., p. 327.
Carl Zimmer, "Ecowar", Discover, January 1992, p. 37.
Ibid., p. 38.
Kemp, op, cit., p. 327.
Ibid., pp. 327.
Ibid., pp., 327-328.
Amal Kumar Naj, "Kuwait - Oil Well Fires Did Little Damage To the Global Environment, Study Says", The Wall Street Journal, May 15, 1992.
Ibid., p. 332.
Zimmer, op. cit, pp. 38-39.
Kemp, op. cit., pp. 332-333.
See Inal Ersan, "Much Gulf War Pollution Cleared but Leaks Pose Risk", Reuters, August 24, 1995.
Kemp, op. cit., p. 333.
"Scientists Say Persian Gulf Shoreline Still Devestated", Cable News Network (CNN) Transcript #358, May 11, 1993.
"Kuwait Environment Still Scarred by Gulf War", Reuters, October 27, 1993.
"Kuwait Cabinet Debates Reports on Gulf Chemicals", Reuters, September 24, 1995.
"Kuwait to Ask UN to Help Check Iraqi Sunk Boats", Reuters World Service, September 25, 1995.
See United Press International (untitled), November 1, 1995.
The total cost of Kuwait's direct damage compensation claims against Iraq are valued at up to $170 billion, and these costs do not cover the cost of Kuwait's liberation and reconstruction. Kuwait has estimated that the direct damage value of Kuwait's losses sustained during the Iraqi occupation may reach $700 billion. See "Kuwait Claims 385 Million Dollars for Environmental Damage", The Xinhua News Agency, September 5, 1995.
John Cooper, "Kuwait: Project Plans Add to Oil Asset Value", Middle East Economic Digest, April 14, 1995.
CIA World Factbook, 1995 (Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1995).
See Ahmad Mardini, "Gulf Environment: Gulf Takes a Unified Stand on Environment", Inter Press Service, September 11, 1995.
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3. Related Cases: Barrier Reef
1. The Issue:
Often called the eighth wonder of the world by the Australiantourist promoters, the Great Barrier Reef stretches 1,250 milesalong the northeastern coast of Australia. The Reef covers an areaabout half the size of Texas and is the largest structure evercreated by living things. Due to its popularity and location, theGreat Barrier Reef is under attack by the tourist industry, miners,and oil companies who want to drill for oil there. The Reef isalso under attack by a natural predator, the Crown of ThornsStarfish. Because of the increased stress, the Great Barrier Reefis beginning to show signs of degradation. In an attempt tocontrol the destruction to the Reef, the Great Barrier Reef MarinePark was created in 1980, as a result of the federal Great BarrierReef Marine Park Act of 1975. The Act provided for the creationof the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority which is the bodythat manages the protection and development within the Park. However, degradation still continues.2. Description The Great Barrier Reef is not one structure, but rather it ismade up of more than 2,500 individual reefs. These individualreefs are sometimes close together and sometimes they are widelyseparated. Coral reefs are often called the rain forests of theocean, harboring countless numbers of species. The Great BarrierReef alone is home to "10,000 species of sponge, 350 species ofcoral, 4,000 species of molluscs, 350 species of echinoderms andmore than 1500 species of fish. Divers estimate it would take athousand dives just to see the reef's highlights." Species rangein size from a few inches to a few feet, in shapes from "torpedo topancake," and come in all the colors of the rainbow and inbetween. The 80,000 year old Reef is also "the breeding area for anumber of rare and endangered species. Humpback whales come fromthe Antarctic to give birth to their young in Reef waters. Six ofthe World's seven species of sea turtle breed on the Reef..." Like other coral reefs, the Great Barrier Reef was built by the births, deaths, and workaday lives of countless billions of coral polyps, tiny colonial animals that form limestone skeletons for support as they reach upward toward sunlight. Coral beds--again, numberless masses of them--are the solid structures in, on, and around which the other creatures of the reef live. As a result of its beauty and natural wealth, the GreatBarrier Reef is a popular spot for both tourists and locals. Theincrease in the number of visitors has inevitably resulted in thedegradation to areas of the Reef. The numbers of some species havebeen slowly diminishing while in some areas, the Reef itself hasdied. Once sleepy towns have been transformed into tourist resorts. In 1992, 1.2 million people (both foreign and local tourists) cameto see the Great Barrier Reef with the number of tourists expectedto grow at least ten percent a year. The creation of a newairport in Cairns in the early 1990s, has transformed it into aluxurious tourist resort. During the construction period ofseveral resorts, "hills were leveled, harbors dredged andartificial beaches created." This was only to be the beginningof the destruction. Prior to all of the tourist resorts and the increase in waysto travel to the Reef, only a handful of tourists came to see it. In the past, it was very difficult to find transportation to theReef so it was too troublesome to visit. Today, tourists areshuttled to various locations of the Reef by high-speed catamarans,dive boats, seaplanes, even helicopters. The increase intransportation modes also translates into more tourists visitingthe same handful of islands, straining the Reef nearby. Theincrease of tourists places added stress on a small fraction of theReef - there is more diving, more swimming, more shell collecting,more walking on the Reef, etc. and these actions have translatedthemselves into killing the coral. Often the tourists seem oblivious to the damage they cause theReef. Tourists damage the Reef while "walking across reef flatssmashing coral, collecting molluscs and fish, overturning coralboulders, etc." Many visitors do know that the Reef is sufferingfrom all of the attention and that it is a protected area. Thishas not stopped them from collecting live shells, however. Manypeople can not resist the temptation of picking up a shell or two. 'Most visitors know that the reef's protected now,' Geoffrey Mercer, one of the park wardens, told me recently. 'They know it's forbidden to collect live shells, but a lot of them just can't resist the temptation. They bring the shells all the way back to the hotel, and then their consciences get the better of them; they drop them in one of the nearby tidal pools.' Geoffrey grins. 'If you want to see the prettiest shells on Heron Island, check the area around the hotel.' In 1990, swimmers had to be told to stop urinating in thewater because it was killing the coral. Coral grows in lownutrient waters and the increased levels of nutrients, from theurine, began to have an effect on the coral necessitating thestatement. Swimmers often do not realize that urinating in thewater can have such a dramatic affect. Coral will eventually dieafter being constantly dosed with nutrients such as urine. Hotels are also damaging the Reef. They generally pipe theirsewage and wastewater directly into the ocean, damaging nearbycoral. The development of hotel resorts has led to the damage ofboth the coastline and the Reef. With the construction of hotels,comes the runoff of heavy sedimentation and the suffocation of thecoral. Runoff from agricultural development also leads toincreased nutrient levels in the water. Research commissioned bythe Park Authority "estimates that run-off from the mainland hasincreased fourfold since European settlement." Today visitors to the Reef may stay in posh resorts and travelto the Reef on luxury catamarans. One such catamaran comesequipped with "dining room, bar, spa and a lounge room bristlingwith hi-tech video editing facilities to capture your first dive onfilm." There are also some "sophisticated" resorts. Resorts are not to be outdone by the catamarans. One resort,which was built but did not succeed, was designed to be a hotelmoored to the Reef itself. The hotel was a seven-story, 200-bedroom building operated as a first-class hotel. There wereclosed circuit televisions in guest rooms and semi-submersibleswith "huge viewing windows to take guests below the surface andamong the fish and living coral of the reef." Another resortcomplex features an indoor ice skating rink. Tourist resorts do not have to have a negative impact on theReef, but if they are to be safe to the Reef, they must be planned,built and managed with the Reef's fragile ecosystem in mind. Permanently anchored pontoons, for example, "should be anchoredover sand to prevent the shade they cast from killing any coralsbeneath." Many people are beginning to complain that thus far, tourismhas been linked with the economy and the environment but not withsustainability. The fact that this component is missing istroublesome. Until a strategy is created which includes thiscomponent, tourism will have an adverse impact on the Reef. Recreational fishing is no longer harmless either. Over25,000 small boats are privately owned by residents living alongthe coast near the Great Barrier Reef. This means that the Reefis overfished, severely depleting the stock of fish. The boatowners are also not always careful where and how they drop theiranchors. This reckless behavior leads to damaging the Reef whenthe anchors hits and smash the coral. A constant battle continues with the oil developers who claimthat oil drilling will not damage the Reef. The developers arguethat the exploration and drilling would be performed four milesoffshore of the Reef, hence no damage would be incurred by it. Anadditional harm would come when and if an oil spill occurs. Management of the spill would be "hindered by a lack of informationas to the environmental impact of detergents used to contain thespread." Not only do authorities have to worry about spilled oil fromexploration but they also must worry about the potential spillswhich could occur as a result of an oil tanker colliding with theReef. Each year more than 2,000 large ships, many carryinghazardous cargoes, sail the narrow channel which runs inside theReef. Legislation was passed that made it mandatory for theseships to carry a pilot who is intimately knowledgeable of the area. However, this will not preclude the possibilities of spills fromoccurring, just reduce the chances. A final, yet very serious threat to the Great Barrier Reef isthe persistent outbreaks of the Crown of Thorns Starfish. In the1960s the first outbreak began. The Crown of Thorns Starfish is apredator; that is, it eats other living animals - small reef-building animals called coral polyps. Polyps usually constructcommunal limestone homes which are built up into a multitude ofshapes and sizes that eventually give rise to what is known as a'coral reef.' The crown of thorns starfish is mobile. Usingsuckers under its arms called 'tube feet', it is able to moveacross coral reefs to find new prey. After finding a suitablecoral, the crown of thorns pulls its stomach out through its mouth(a process known as 'stomach eversion') over the coral polyps andreleases digestive juices onto the coral, breaking down the polyp'stissue into a readily absorbed 'polyp soup.' It leaves only awhite coral skeleton which is soon invaded by algae, worms, boringmolluscs or reef settling organisms. A second outbreak began in 1979. As a result of the twooutbreaks almost one-third of the Reef has been attacked, with someparts of the Reef ninety-five percent destroyed. A thirdoutbreak began in the late 1980s. It is nearly impossible to stopthe Starfish, making the outbreaks even more serious. One of thefew ways to kill the Starfish is for divers to inject the animalswith poison or to remove them by hand. These processes take manymonths to be successful and cost between $5 and $16 per Starfish. Along with few solutions to the problem of outbreaks, thereare few answers as to the cause of them. Research has uncoveredCrown of Thorns spines in old Reef sediment suggesting thatoutbreaks have occurred in the past and may be a normal part of thenatural reef cycle. However, the fact that outbreaks are becomingmore frequent is still a mystery. Many scientists blame both thetourism industry and the development industry. The "increasingland clearing for urban and industrial expansion, forestry andagricultural activities...generally cause an increase in water andsediment runoff during heavy rains." Other scientists believe that the increase in humanactivities, such as shell collecting and fishing, have caused adecline in the natural predators of the Crown of Thorns Starfish. The conclusion is that humans have triggered the increase inoutbreaks.3. Related CasesSee CORAL caseSee CUBA case Key Words (1): Tourism (2): Travel (3): Coral4. Draft Author: Deborah MeisegeierB. LEGAL CLUSTER The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park was established under thefederal Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act of 1975. The Act calledfor the creation of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authoritywhich is the body in charge of managing the protection anddevelopment within the Park. The Park is not a national park butinstead is a "multiple-use protected natural area." The Park Authority has approximately ninety staff members andis responsible for "striking a balance between development andprotection of the fragile Great Barrier Reef." The Authority isresponsible for protecting the Reef for its own sake and for thefishing and tourism industries which are dependent upon the Reef'shealth. The Authority stresses that any use of the Reef or anynearby areas must not interfere or threaten the Reef's ecologicalprocesses. The Park is recognized by the International Union for theConservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) now the WorldConservation Union. It fits the definition of Category VIII(multiple-use protected area) and Category IX (biosphere reserve). In 1981, the Reef was added to the World Heritage List as a naturalsite. In 1990, it was declared a 'Particularly Sensitive Area'by the International Maritime Organization.6. Discourse: AGREEStatus: INPROG7. Forum: IUCN Scope: UNILAT8. Number of Parties Affected: 19. Legal Standing: LAWC. GEOGRAPHIC FILTERS The Great Barrier Reef is located in the state of Queensland. The region was settled in 1824 by the Europeans. It is Australia'sfastest growing state with a population of 2.7 million. Thereare three international airports in Queensland making it even moreaccessible to visitors. The Great Barrier Reef extends along Queensland's coastlinefor more than 1200 miles. In addition to the Great Barrier Reef,there are also rain forests in Queensland. The two natural wondersactually meet in the far north region of the state. The climate of the state is tropical to subtropical. The fourseasons are typically not distinctive and temperatures are usuallyhigher inland. There are low humidity levels making almost anytemperature comfortable.10. Geography: a. Continental Domain: AUSTRALIA b. Geographic Site: AUSTRALIA c. Geographic Impact: AUSTRALIA11. Sub-national Factors: YES, QUEENSLAND12. Type of Habitat: OCEAND. TRADE FILTERS13. Type of Measure: REGSTD14. Direct vs. Indirect Impacts: INDirect15. Relation of Measure to Impact: a. Directly Related: NO b. Indirectly Related: YES (TOURISM) c. Not Related: NO d. Process: YES (HABITAT)16. Product Type: TOURISM17. Economic Data: a. Industry Output ($): $6.1 billion b. Employment: 525,000 Overall the tourism industry generated $6.1 billion in 1992-93. Tourism from the Great Barrier Reef generates approximately$1,370 million per year. In addition to the money generated fromtourism, "corals themselves are gathered and sold as part of theinternational trade of reef products." Growth levels inemployment are expected to rise due to the successful SydneyOlympics bid.18. Degree of Competitive Impact: LOW The idea of zoning was introduced as the best resolution tothe dual objectives of protection and multiple use. "Levels ofprotection within these zones vary from almost complete absence ofrestriction on activities, to almost complete restriction of humanaccess." There are currently four different types of zones:preservation zones - in these areas, virtually all activities areprohibited scientific research zones - in these areas, scientificresearch is allowed under strict control marine national park zones- in these areas, scientific, educationaland recreational uses are allowed.general use zones - in these areas, some commercial andrecreational fishing are allowed. In addition to the zone divisions, the general use zones arefurther divided into type A and type B, with the type B zones morestrictly regulated. This strategy allows a greater degree ofregulation. Tourism is permitted in 99.8 percent of the Marine Park. The Park Authority is eager to prevent damage from occurring to theReef. The use of zoning, allows people to enjoy the Reef withoutcontributing to its death. In addition, in October of 1991 a pilotage legislation cameinto affect. Certain vessels (determined by size and cargo) arerequired to carry a pilot who is intimately knowledgeable of thearea. This law was created to reduce the possibilities of any shipgroundings or spills. New zoning was proposed in 1992 which took into accountinformation which was previously not available. A new zone wasproposed which would reduce activities around the areas wheredugong, turtles, and other fauna live. Another proposal called for the removal of nutrients from allsewage discharged from tourist resorts into the waters. A tourismmanagement strategy has also been proposed. The attempt of thisproposal is to reduce the affects of the developers during theconstruction of new resorts. New bans on fishing were alsointroduced in an effort to control overfishing, by both commercialfishers and recreational fishers.19.Industry Sector: Tourism (TOUR)20.Exporters and Importers: JAPAN and AUSTRALIA c. Leading Exporters (US $): $1.34 billion in 1992 d. Leading Importers (US $): N/AE.ENVIRONMENTAL CLUSTERS The living, growing portion of a coral reef is a thin veneeron the surface of the cemented limestone skeletons of millions ofdead corals and the remains of limestone producing (calcareous)plants. The reef cement is partially formed by encrusting algae,and partially by chemical precipitation from the water. Coral polyps, with the help of single-celled plants(zooxanthellae) living within them, convert dissolved limestonefrom the water into hard limestone. Polyps build their communallimestone homes into a multitude of shapes and sizes to produce thecomplex and beautiful coral colonies we see underwater. Corallinealgae and calcareous sponges grow between the old coral coloniesand help cement them into solid reefs. Reef building corals need warm waters in which to grow andtheir plant helpers, the zooxanthellae, need light, just as plantson land do. For this reason, coral reefs only develop well inwarm, shallow and clear tropical seas. From this description of how coral reefs are built, it isclear to see that reefs can not live in dirty water. Hence theyare threatened by the runoff of water (the water which drains fromthe crops sprayed with pesticides), the soil which is drained intothe sea as a result of increased development, the spill of oil(which may result both from the transportation of oil through theReef area and from any drilling and exploration which may takeplace on the sea floor), and from high amounts of urine (whichresults in increased levels of nutrients, killing the coral). The death of the coral, however, is only one part. Dead coralcan not sustain life. Hence the species which live on and aroundthe coral will also be affected. 21.Environmental Problem Type: SPLSPollution, Sea (POLS) The biggest environmental problem is the threat to habitat. Already some species are dead, while others have been severelydepleted. However, sea pollution is also a major problem and mustnot be ignored.22. Species Information: CORAL REEF23. Impact and Effect:HIGH and REGULatory24.Urgency and Lifetime While I was unable to locate data specific to the GreatBarrier Reef, I was able to locate data on coral reefs as a whole. The predictions estimate that 70 percent of the world's coral reefswill be severely degraded or dead by the year 2030.25.Substitute: CONSV Perhaps the best solution to the preservation of the GreatBarrier Reef is the expansion of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Parkand increased education to both visitors and natives. While thePark has divided the Reef into different zones allowing varioustypes of recreational and economic activities, the Authority mayhave to re-evaluate these zones. If degradation becomes too greatin some zones, it will have to restrict such activities. In thelong run, the health of the Great Barrier Reef will generate moreincome (from tourism) than will destroying it from overfishing. Enforcing the laws and collecting fines for those who disobey mayalso slow down and eventually end harmful and prohibitedactivities. Education is also a key. All people who come into contactwith the Reef must learn about the fragile ecosystem and how theycan contribute to its continuation rather than its destruction. Often times people do not realize how their actions adverselyimpact the Reef. Educating them on how the Reef grows and howtheir actions affect the coral may hinder, or at the very leastslow down, the ultimate death of the wonder they come to visit. The Park Authority has issued basic guidelines for thosepeople who want to enjoy the beauties of the Reef. Included amongthese guidelines are anchoring with care, shipping out the litterthat is brought in, and limiting the fish that is caught. The Park Authority urges people who are fishing or boatingnear the Reef to try and anchor in the sand, not in the coral. They should also motor toward the anchor when hauling it in. Thesesimple efforts will reduce the damage done to the coral. The Authority also suggests that "if you take it out, bring itback." The belief is that if it was possible to bring it withyou, then it can also be removed by you. Discharging oil, fuel,plastic containers, and any other type of garbage is very damagingto the Reef. Fines up to $274,000 for individuals and up to$1,370,000 for companies will be levied against offenders. Finally, people should take only the fish that is needed fortoday and leave the rest for another day. Doing this, can reducethe effects of overfishing.F. OTHER FACTORS26. Culture: YES There are three Aboriginal Trust areas next to the CairnsSection of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. In an effort tomaintain the culture of the Aborigines, the Park Authority allowstraditional hunting and fishing by Aboriginal people in all zonesof the Cairns Section except Preservation Zones. Permits for hunting or fishing are issued to the community. The permits have some conditions, including a ban on the use offirearms or noxious substances, and the authorities request thatthe Aboriginal people report on any dugong or turtle caught. The dugong is of significant cultural value to the Aboriginalpeople. They are hunted for their meat, which is shared with thecommunity and is an important ceremonial food, and for their oilwhich is used by older people as a cure for aches, pains, andillnesses. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority believes it hastaken steps to recognize the customary rights of the Aboriginalpeople. However, more improvements are being sought as the ParkAuthority is trying to improve liaison with the Aboriginalcommunities.27. Human Rights: NO27. Trans-Boundary Issue: NO28. Relevant Literature ---. "A 25-Year Strategic Plan for the Great Barrier Reef WorldHeritage Area." Reflections, No. 27, June, 1992, pp. 4-13.---. Australian Financial Review, April 8, 1987.---. "Coral, Politics and Oil." The National Times, December 14 to20, 1980, pp. 10-12. ---. Crown of Thorns. one in a series published by the GreatBarrier Reef Marine Park Authority and the Queensland Nation Parksand Wildlife Service, February, 1985.---. "Daintree Road and the Reef." The Sydney Morning Herald. May8, 1985, p. 10.---. "Oil Drilling 'Will Not Damage Barrier Reef'." The CanberraTimes, June 14, 1980, p. 3.---. Queensland Australia: The Great Barrier Reef State. touristbrochure. 1994.---. Reef Region Fisheries. one in a series published by the GreatBarrierReef Marine Park Authority and the Queensland Nation Parks andWildlife Service, February, 1985.---. "Swimmers told to Stop Urinating on Great Barrier Reef."Reuter News Service, January 17, 1991.---. "The Float that Flopped." Australian Financial Review, June13, 1989.---. The Great Barrier Reef. one in a series published by the GreatBarrierReef Marine Park Authority and the Queensland Nation Parks andWildlife Service.Alexander, David."Guarding Watery Paradise." InternationalWildlife, Vol.18, No. 4, May, 1988, p. 4-10.Australian Academy of Science. Acanthaster Planci (Crown of ThornsStarfish) and The Great Barrier Reef. No. 11, February, 1970.Australian Overseas Information Service. Australia: AnIntroduction. December 1994.Australian Tourist Commission. Destination Australia. Venice:Charles Patricolo & Company, 1995.Beale, Bob. "Alarm Over Tests on Coral." The Sydney Morning Herald,February 12, 1994, p. 7.Bita, Natasha. "Lack of Funds Threatens $1bn-a-year Resource." TheWeekend Australia, April 6-7, 1991, p. 3.Drogin, Bob. "Trouble Down Under." Los Angeles Times Magazine. September 19, 1993, pp. 18-20, 60-62.Endean,Robert. Australia's Great Barrier Reef. St. Lucia,Queensland: University of Queensland Press, 1982.Glascott, Joseph. "Millions of Visitors for the Barrier Reef."Hall, C. Michael. "Ecotourism in Australia, New Zealand and theSouth Pacific: Appropriate Tourism or a New Form of EcologicalImperialism?" in Cater, Erlet and Lowman, Gwen, (eds.). Ecotourism:A Sustainable Option? Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1994.House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment andConservation. Protection of the Great Barrier Reef. Canberra:Australian Government Publishing Service, 1985.Kelleher, Graeme. "Sustainable Development of the Great BarrierReef Marine Park." in Hawkes, Suzanne and Williams, Peter (eds.).The Greening of Tourism: From Principles to Practice, A Casebook ofBest Environmental Practice in Tourism. Burnaby, B.C.: Simon FraserUniversity, 1993.Malcolm, Steve. "Rising Nutrient Level Harming Ecosystems." The Age(Melbourne), November 1, 1994, p. 16.McGregor, Adrian. "Tourists Hear the Call of the Islands." TheNational Times, December 14 to 20, 1980, p. 15.Passa, Dennis. "Australia's Great Barrier Reef Periled by Man,Nature." The Los Angeles Times, May 5, 1991.Perry, Michael. "Take a Dive on the Wild Side and Kiss a Fish."Reuter Textline, August 8, 1993.Reischl, Gerald. "Australia's Underwater Wonder." World PressReview, Vol. 38, No. 3, March 1991, p. 62.Scott, David Clark. "Starfish Threaten Australia's Great BarrierReef - and Tourism." The Christian Science Monitor, August 24,1988.Smith, Deborah. "The Unknown Risks to the Reef's EcologicalBalance." The National Times, December 14 to 20, 1980, p. 14.Summerhays, Soames. "A Marine Park is Born." National Geographic,(May, 1981), pp. 630-635.Tarte, Diane and Hegerl, Eddie. "Great Barrier Reef: Guarding OurGreatest Living Treasure." Habitat Australia, October, 1990, p. 17-19.Weber, Peter K. "Saving the Coral Reefs." The Futurist, July-August, 1993, p. 28-33.White, Mel. "Australia's Great Barrier Reef." National GeographicTraveler. Vol. 9, No. 1 (January, 1992). p. 96-111.Wright, Judith. "The Reef's Defenders." The National Times,December 14 to 20, 1980, pp. 12-14.
Often called the eighth wonder of the world by the Australiantourist promoters, the Great Barrier Reef stretches 1,250 milesalong the northeastern coast of Australia. The Reef covers an areaabout half the size of Texas and is the largest structure evercreated by living things. Due to its popularity and location, theGreat Barrier Reef is under attack by the tourist industry, miners,and oil companies who want to drill for oil there. The Reef isalso under attack by a natural predator, the Crown of ThornsStarfish. Because of the increased stress, the Great Barrier Reefis beginning to show signs of degradation. In an attempt tocontrol the destruction to the Reef, the Great Barrier Reef MarinePark was created in 1980, as a result of the federal Great BarrierReef Marine Park Act of 1975. The Act provided for the creationof the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority which is the bodythat manages the protection and development within the Park. However, degradation still continues.2. Description The Great Barrier Reef is not one structure, but rather it ismade up of more than 2,500 individual reefs. These individualreefs are sometimes close together and sometimes they are widelyseparated. Coral reefs are often called the rain forests of theocean, harboring countless numbers of species. The Great BarrierReef alone is home to "10,000 species of sponge, 350 species ofcoral, 4,000 species of molluscs, 350 species of echinoderms andmore than 1500 species of fish. Divers estimate it would take athousand dives just to see the reef's highlights." Species rangein size from a few inches to a few feet, in shapes from "torpedo topancake," and come in all the colors of the rainbow and inbetween. The 80,000 year old Reef is also "the breeding area for anumber of rare and endangered species. Humpback whales come fromthe Antarctic to give birth to their young in Reef waters. Six ofthe World's seven species of sea turtle breed on the Reef..." Like other coral reefs, the Great Barrier Reef was built by the births, deaths, and workaday lives of countless billions of coral polyps, tiny colonial animals that form limestone skeletons for support as they reach upward toward sunlight. Coral beds--again, numberless masses of them--are the solid structures in, on, and around which the other creatures of the reef live. As a result of its beauty and natural wealth, the GreatBarrier Reef is a popular spot for both tourists and locals. Theincrease in the number of visitors has inevitably resulted in thedegradation to areas of the Reef. The numbers of some species havebeen slowly diminishing while in some areas, the Reef itself hasdied. Once sleepy towns have been transformed into tourist resorts. In 1992, 1.2 million people (both foreign and local tourists) cameto see the Great Barrier Reef with the number of tourists expectedto grow at least ten percent a year. The creation of a newairport in Cairns in the early 1990s, has transformed it into aluxurious tourist resort. During the construction period ofseveral resorts, "hills were leveled, harbors dredged andartificial beaches created." This was only to be the beginningof the destruction. Prior to all of the tourist resorts and the increase in waysto travel to the Reef, only a handful of tourists came to see it. In the past, it was very difficult to find transportation to theReef so it was too troublesome to visit. Today, tourists areshuttled to various locations of the Reef by high-speed catamarans,dive boats, seaplanes, even helicopters. The increase intransportation modes also translates into more tourists visitingthe same handful of islands, straining the Reef nearby. Theincrease of tourists places added stress on a small fraction of theReef - there is more diving, more swimming, more shell collecting,more walking on the Reef, etc. and these actions have translatedthemselves into killing the coral. Often the tourists seem oblivious to the damage they cause theReef. Tourists damage the Reef while "walking across reef flatssmashing coral, collecting molluscs and fish, overturning coralboulders, etc." Many visitors do know that the Reef is sufferingfrom all of the attention and that it is a protected area. Thishas not stopped them from collecting live shells, however. Manypeople can not resist the temptation of picking up a shell or two. 'Most visitors know that the reef's protected now,' Geoffrey Mercer, one of the park wardens, told me recently. 'They know it's forbidden to collect live shells, but a lot of them just can't resist the temptation. They bring the shells all the way back to the hotel, and then their consciences get the better of them; they drop them in one of the nearby tidal pools.' Geoffrey grins. 'If you want to see the prettiest shells on Heron Island, check the area around the hotel.' In 1990, swimmers had to be told to stop urinating in thewater because it was killing the coral. Coral grows in lownutrient waters and the increased levels of nutrients, from theurine, began to have an effect on the coral necessitating thestatement. Swimmers often do not realize that urinating in thewater can have such a dramatic affect. Coral will eventually dieafter being constantly dosed with nutrients such as urine. Hotels are also damaging the Reef. They generally pipe theirsewage and wastewater directly into the ocean, damaging nearbycoral. The development of hotel resorts has led to the damage ofboth the coastline and the Reef. With the construction of hotels,comes the runoff of heavy sedimentation and the suffocation of thecoral. Runoff from agricultural development also leads toincreased nutrient levels in the water. Research commissioned bythe Park Authority "estimates that run-off from the mainland hasincreased fourfold since European settlement." Today visitors to the Reef may stay in posh resorts and travelto the Reef on luxury catamarans. One such catamaran comesequipped with "dining room, bar, spa and a lounge room bristlingwith hi-tech video editing facilities to capture your first dive onfilm." There are also some "sophisticated" resorts. Resorts are not to be outdone by the catamarans. One resort,which was built but did not succeed, was designed to be a hotelmoored to the Reef itself. The hotel was a seven-story, 200-bedroom building operated as a first-class hotel. There wereclosed circuit televisions in guest rooms and semi-submersibleswith "huge viewing windows to take guests below the surface andamong the fish and living coral of the reef." Another resortcomplex features an indoor ice skating rink. Tourist resorts do not have to have a negative impact on theReef, but if they are to be safe to the Reef, they must be planned,built and managed with the Reef's fragile ecosystem in mind. Permanently anchored pontoons, for example, "should be anchoredover sand to prevent the shade they cast from killing any coralsbeneath." Many people are beginning to complain that thus far, tourismhas been linked with the economy and the environment but not withsustainability. The fact that this component is missing istroublesome. Until a strategy is created which includes thiscomponent, tourism will have an adverse impact on the Reef. Recreational fishing is no longer harmless either. Over25,000 small boats are privately owned by residents living alongthe coast near the Great Barrier Reef. This means that the Reefis overfished, severely depleting the stock of fish. The boatowners are also not always careful where and how they drop theiranchors. This reckless behavior leads to damaging the Reef whenthe anchors hits and smash the coral. A constant battle continues with the oil developers who claimthat oil drilling will not damage the Reef. The developers arguethat the exploration and drilling would be performed four milesoffshore of the Reef, hence no damage would be incurred by it. Anadditional harm would come when and if an oil spill occurs. Management of the spill would be "hindered by a lack of informationas to the environmental impact of detergents used to contain thespread." Not only do authorities have to worry about spilled oil fromexploration but they also must worry about the potential spillswhich could occur as a result of an oil tanker colliding with theReef. Each year more than 2,000 large ships, many carryinghazardous cargoes, sail the narrow channel which runs inside theReef. Legislation was passed that made it mandatory for theseships to carry a pilot who is intimately knowledgeable of the area. However, this will not preclude the possibilities of spills fromoccurring, just reduce the chances. A final, yet very serious threat to the Great Barrier Reef isthe persistent outbreaks of the Crown of Thorns Starfish. In the1960s the first outbreak began. The Crown of Thorns Starfish is apredator; that is, it eats other living animals - small reef-building animals called coral polyps. Polyps usually constructcommunal limestone homes which are built up into a multitude ofshapes and sizes that eventually give rise to what is known as a'coral reef.' The crown of thorns starfish is mobile. Usingsuckers under its arms called 'tube feet', it is able to moveacross coral reefs to find new prey. After finding a suitablecoral, the crown of thorns pulls its stomach out through its mouth(a process known as 'stomach eversion') over the coral polyps andreleases digestive juices onto the coral, breaking down the polyp'stissue into a readily absorbed 'polyp soup.' It leaves only awhite coral skeleton which is soon invaded by algae, worms, boringmolluscs or reef settling organisms. A second outbreak began in 1979. As a result of the twooutbreaks almost one-third of the Reef has been attacked, with someparts of the Reef ninety-five percent destroyed. A thirdoutbreak began in the late 1980s. It is nearly impossible to stopthe Starfish, making the outbreaks even more serious. One of thefew ways to kill the Starfish is for divers to inject the animalswith poison or to remove them by hand. These processes take manymonths to be successful and cost between $5 and $16 per Starfish. Along with few solutions to the problem of outbreaks, thereare few answers as to the cause of them. Research has uncoveredCrown of Thorns spines in old Reef sediment suggesting thatoutbreaks have occurred in the past and may be a normal part of thenatural reef cycle. However, the fact that outbreaks are becomingmore frequent is still a mystery. Many scientists blame both thetourism industry and the development industry. The "increasingland clearing for urban and industrial expansion, forestry andagricultural activities...generally cause an increase in water andsediment runoff during heavy rains." Other scientists believe that the increase in humanactivities, such as shell collecting and fishing, have caused adecline in the natural predators of the Crown of Thorns Starfish. The conclusion is that humans have triggered the increase inoutbreaks.3. Related CasesSee CORAL caseSee CUBA case Key Words (1): Tourism (2): Travel (3): Coral4. Draft Author: Deborah MeisegeierB. LEGAL CLUSTER The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park was established under thefederal Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act of 1975. The Act calledfor the creation of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authoritywhich is the body in charge of managing the protection anddevelopment within the Park. The Park is not a national park butinstead is a "multiple-use protected natural area." The Park Authority has approximately ninety staff members andis responsible for "striking a balance between development andprotection of the fragile Great Barrier Reef." The Authority isresponsible for protecting the Reef for its own sake and for thefishing and tourism industries which are dependent upon the Reef'shealth. The Authority stresses that any use of the Reef or anynearby areas must not interfere or threaten the Reef's ecologicalprocesses. The Park is recognized by the International Union for theConservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) now the WorldConservation Union. It fits the definition of Category VIII(multiple-use protected area) and Category IX (biosphere reserve). In 1981, the Reef was added to the World Heritage List as a naturalsite. In 1990, it was declared a 'Particularly Sensitive Area'by the International Maritime Organization.6. Discourse: AGREEStatus: INPROG7. Forum: IUCN Scope: UNILAT8. Number of Parties Affected: 19. Legal Standing: LAWC. GEOGRAPHIC FILTERS The Great Barrier Reef is located in the state of Queensland. The region was settled in 1824 by the Europeans. It is Australia'sfastest growing state with a population of 2.7 million. Thereare three international airports in Queensland making it even moreaccessible to visitors. The Great Barrier Reef extends along Queensland's coastlinefor more than 1200 miles. In addition to the Great Barrier Reef,there are also rain forests in Queensland. The two natural wondersactually meet in the far north region of the state. The climate of the state is tropical to subtropical. The fourseasons are typically not distinctive and temperatures are usuallyhigher inland. There are low humidity levels making almost anytemperature comfortable.10. Geography: a. Continental Domain: AUSTRALIA b. Geographic Site: AUSTRALIA c. Geographic Impact: AUSTRALIA11. Sub-national Factors: YES, QUEENSLAND12. Type of Habitat: OCEAND. TRADE FILTERS13. Type of Measure: REGSTD14. Direct vs. Indirect Impacts: INDirect15. Relation of Measure to Impact: a. Directly Related: NO b. Indirectly Related: YES (TOURISM) c. Not Related: NO d. Process: YES (HABITAT)16. Product Type: TOURISM17. Economic Data: a. Industry Output ($): $6.1 billion b. Employment: 525,000 Overall the tourism industry generated $6.1 billion in 1992-93. Tourism from the Great Barrier Reef generates approximately$1,370 million per year. In addition to the money generated fromtourism, "corals themselves are gathered and sold as part of theinternational trade of reef products." Growth levels inemployment are expected to rise due to the successful SydneyOlympics bid.18. Degree of Competitive Impact: LOW The idea of zoning was introduced as the best resolution tothe dual objectives of protection and multiple use. "Levels ofprotection within these zones vary from almost complete absence ofrestriction on activities, to almost complete restriction of humanaccess." There are currently four different types of zones:preservation zones - in these areas, virtually all activities areprohibited scientific research zones - in these areas, scientificresearch is allowed under strict control marine national park zones- in these areas, scientific, educationaland recreational uses are allowed.general use zones - in these areas, some commercial andrecreational fishing are allowed. In addition to the zone divisions, the general use zones arefurther divided into type A and type B, with the type B zones morestrictly regulated. This strategy allows a greater degree ofregulation. Tourism is permitted in 99.8 percent of the Marine Park. The Park Authority is eager to prevent damage from occurring to theReef. The use of zoning, allows people to enjoy the Reef withoutcontributing to its death. In addition, in October of 1991 a pilotage legislation cameinto affect. Certain vessels (determined by size and cargo) arerequired to carry a pilot who is intimately knowledgeable of thearea. This law was created to reduce the possibilities of any shipgroundings or spills. New zoning was proposed in 1992 which took into accountinformation which was previously not available. A new zone wasproposed which would reduce activities around the areas wheredugong, turtles, and other fauna live. Another proposal called for the removal of nutrients from allsewage discharged from tourist resorts into the waters. A tourismmanagement strategy has also been proposed. The attempt of thisproposal is to reduce the affects of the developers during theconstruction of new resorts. New bans on fishing were alsointroduced in an effort to control overfishing, by both commercialfishers and recreational fishers.19.Industry Sector: Tourism (TOUR)20.Exporters and Importers: JAPAN and AUSTRALIA c. Leading Exporters (US $): $1.34 billion in 1992 d. Leading Importers (US $): N/AE.ENVIRONMENTAL CLUSTERS The living, growing portion of a coral reef is a thin veneeron the surface of the cemented limestone skeletons of millions ofdead corals and the remains of limestone producing (calcareous)plants. The reef cement is partially formed by encrusting algae,and partially by chemical precipitation from the water. Coral polyps, with the help of single-celled plants(zooxanthellae) living within them, convert dissolved limestonefrom the water into hard limestone. Polyps build their communallimestone homes into a multitude of shapes and sizes to produce thecomplex and beautiful coral colonies we see underwater. Corallinealgae and calcareous sponges grow between the old coral coloniesand help cement them into solid reefs. Reef building corals need warm waters in which to grow andtheir plant helpers, the zooxanthellae, need light, just as plantson land do. For this reason, coral reefs only develop well inwarm, shallow and clear tropical seas. From this description of how coral reefs are built, it isclear to see that reefs can not live in dirty water. Hence theyare threatened by the runoff of water (the water which drains fromthe crops sprayed with pesticides), the soil which is drained intothe sea as a result of increased development, the spill of oil(which may result both from the transportation of oil through theReef area and from any drilling and exploration which may takeplace on the sea floor), and from high amounts of urine (whichresults in increased levels of nutrients, killing the coral). The death of the coral, however, is only one part. Dead coralcan not sustain life. Hence the species which live on and aroundthe coral will also be affected. 21.Environmental Problem Type: SPLSPollution, Sea (POLS) The biggest environmental problem is the threat to habitat. Already some species are dead, while others have been severelydepleted. However, sea pollution is also a major problem and mustnot be ignored.22. Species Information: CORAL REEF23. Impact and Effect:HIGH and REGULatory24.Urgency and Lifetime While I was unable to locate data specific to the GreatBarrier Reef, I was able to locate data on coral reefs as a whole. The predictions estimate that 70 percent of the world's coral reefswill be severely degraded or dead by the year 2030.25.Substitute: CONSV Perhaps the best solution to the preservation of the GreatBarrier Reef is the expansion of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Parkand increased education to both visitors and natives. While thePark has divided the Reef into different zones allowing varioustypes of recreational and economic activities, the Authority mayhave to re-evaluate these zones. If degradation becomes too greatin some zones, it will have to restrict such activities. In thelong run, the health of the Great Barrier Reef will generate moreincome (from tourism) than will destroying it from overfishing. Enforcing the laws and collecting fines for those who disobey mayalso slow down and eventually end harmful and prohibitedactivities. Education is also a key. All people who come into contactwith the Reef must learn about the fragile ecosystem and how theycan contribute to its continuation rather than its destruction. Often times people do not realize how their actions adverselyimpact the Reef. Educating them on how the Reef grows and howtheir actions affect the coral may hinder, or at the very leastslow down, the ultimate death of the wonder they come to visit. The Park Authority has issued basic guidelines for thosepeople who want to enjoy the beauties of the Reef. Included amongthese guidelines are anchoring with care, shipping out the litterthat is brought in, and limiting the fish that is caught. The Park Authority urges people who are fishing or boatingnear the Reef to try and anchor in the sand, not in the coral. They should also motor toward the anchor when hauling it in. Thesesimple efforts will reduce the damage done to the coral. The Authority also suggests that "if you take it out, bring itback." The belief is that if it was possible to bring it withyou, then it can also be removed by you. Discharging oil, fuel,plastic containers, and any other type of garbage is very damagingto the Reef. Fines up to $274,000 for individuals and up to$1,370,000 for companies will be levied against offenders. Finally, people should take only the fish that is needed fortoday and leave the rest for another day. Doing this, can reducethe effects of overfishing.F. OTHER FACTORS26. Culture: YES There are three Aboriginal Trust areas next to the CairnsSection of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. In an effort tomaintain the culture of the Aborigines, the Park Authority allowstraditional hunting and fishing by Aboriginal people in all zonesof the Cairns Section except Preservation Zones. Permits for hunting or fishing are issued to the community. The permits have some conditions, including a ban on the use offirearms or noxious substances, and the authorities request thatthe Aboriginal people report on any dugong or turtle caught. The dugong is of significant cultural value to the Aboriginalpeople. They are hunted for their meat, which is shared with thecommunity and is an important ceremonial food, and for their oilwhich is used by older people as a cure for aches, pains, andillnesses. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority believes it hastaken steps to recognize the customary rights of the Aboriginalpeople. However, more improvements are being sought as the ParkAuthority is trying to improve liaison with the Aboriginalcommunities.27. Human Rights: NO27. Trans-Boundary Issue: NO28. Relevant Literature ---. "A 25-Year Strategic Plan for the Great Barrier Reef WorldHeritage Area." Reflections, No. 27, June, 1992, pp. 4-13.---. Australian Financial Review, April 8, 1987.---. "Coral, Politics and Oil." The National Times, December 14 to20, 1980, pp. 10-12. ---. Crown of Thorns. one in a series published by the GreatBarrier Reef Marine Park Authority and the Queensland Nation Parksand Wildlife Service, February, 1985.---. "Daintree Road and the Reef." The Sydney Morning Herald. May8, 1985, p. 10.---. "Oil Drilling 'Will Not Damage Barrier Reef'." The CanberraTimes, June 14, 1980, p. 3.---. Queensland Australia: The Great Barrier Reef State. touristbrochure. 1994.---. Reef Region Fisheries. one in a series published by the GreatBarrierReef Marine Park Authority and the Queensland Nation Parks andWildlife Service, February, 1985.---. "Swimmers told to Stop Urinating on Great Barrier Reef."Reuter News Service, January 17, 1991.---. "The Float that Flopped." Australian Financial Review, June13, 1989.---. The Great Barrier Reef. one in a series published by the GreatBarrierReef Marine Park Authority and the Queensland Nation Parks andWildlife Service.Alexander, David."Guarding Watery Paradise." InternationalWildlife, Vol.18, No. 4, May, 1988, p. 4-10.Australian Academy of Science. Acanthaster Planci (Crown of ThornsStarfish) and The Great Barrier Reef. No. 11, February, 1970.Australian Overseas Information Service. Australia: AnIntroduction. December 1994.Australian Tourist Commission. Destination Australia. Venice:Charles Patricolo & Company, 1995.Beale, Bob. "Alarm Over Tests on Coral." The Sydney Morning Herald,February 12, 1994, p. 7.Bita, Natasha. "Lack of Funds Threatens $1bn-a-year Resource." TheWeekend Australia, April 6-7, 1991, p. 3.Drogin, Bob. "Trouble Down Under." Los Angeles Times Magazine. September 19, 1993, pp. 18-20, 60-62.Endean,Robert. Australia's Great Barrier Reef. St. Lucia,Queensland: University of Queensland Press, 1982.Glascott, Joseph. "Millions of Visitors for the Barrier Reef."Hall, C. Michael. "Ecotourism in Australia, New Zealand and theSouth Pacific: Appropriate Tourism or a New Form of EcologicalImperialism?" in Cater, Erlet and Lowman, Gwen, (eds.). Ecotourism:A Sustainable Option? Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1994.House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment andConservation. Protection of the Great Barrier Reef. Canberra:Australian Government Publishing Service, 1985.Kelleher, Graeme. "Sustainable Development of the Great BarrierReef Marine Park." in Hawkes, Suzanne and Williams, Peter (eds.).The Greening of Tourism: From Principles to Practice, A Casebook ofBest Environmental Practice in Tourism. Burnaby, B.C.: Simon FraserUniversity, 1993.Malcolm, Steve. "Rising Nutrient Level Harming Ecosystems." The Age(Melbourne), November 1, 1994, p. 16.McGregor, Adrian. "Tourists Hear the Call of the Islands." TheNational Times, December 14 to 20, 1980, p. 15.Passa, Dennis. "Australia's Great Barrier Reef Periled by Man,Nature." The Los Angeles Times, May 5, 1991.Perry, Michael. "Take a Dive on the Wild Side and Kiss a Fish."Reuter Textline, August 8, 1993.Reischl, Gerald. "Australia's Underwater Wonder." World PressReview, Vol. 38, No. 3, March 1991, p. 62.Scott, David Clark. "Starfish Threaten Australia's Great BarrierReef - and Tourism." The Christian Science Monitor, August 24,1988.Smith, Deborah. "The Unknown Risks to the Reef's EcologicalBalance." The National Times, December 14 to 20, 1980, p. 14.Summerhays, Soames. "A Marine Park is Born." National Geographic,(May, 1981), pp. 630-635.Tarte, Diane and Hegerl, Eddie. "Great Barrier Reef: Guarding OurGreatest Living Treasure." Habitat Australia, October, 1990, p. 17-19.Weber, Peter K. "Saving the Coral Reefs." The Futurist, July-August, 1993, p. 28-33.White, Mel. "Australia's Great Barrier Reef." National GeographicTraveler. Vol. 9, No. 1 (January, 1992). p. 96-111.Wright, Judith. "The Reef's Defenders." The National Times,December 14 to 20, 1980, pp. 12-14.
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