3. Related Cases: Barrier Reef

1. The Issue:
Often called the eighth wonder of the world by the Australiantourist promoters, the Great Barrier Reef stretches 1,250 milesalong the northeastern coast of Australia. The Reef covers an areaabout half the size of Texas and is the largest structure evercreated by living things. Due to its popularity and location, theGreat Barrier Reef is under attack by the tourist industry, miners,and oil companies who want to drill for oil there. The Reef isalso under attack by a natural predator, the Crown of ThornsStarfish. Because of the increased stress, the Great Barrier Reefis beginning to show signs of degradation. In an attempt tocontrol the destruction to the Reef, the Great Barrier Reef MarinePark was created in 1980, as a result of the federal Great BarrierReef Marine Park Act of 1975. The Act provided for the creationof the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority which is the bodythat manages the protection and development within the Park. However, degradation still continues.2. Description The Great Barrier Reef is not one structure, but rather it ismade up of more than 2,500 individual reefs. These individualreefs are sometimes close together and sometimes they are widelyseparated. Coral reefs are often called the rain forests of theocean, harboring countless numbers of species. The Great BarrierReef alone is home to "10,000 species of sponge, 350 species ofcoral, 4,000 species of molluscs, 350 species of echinoderms andmore than 1500 species of fish. Divers estimate it would take athousand dives just to see the reef's highlights." Species rangein size from a few inches to a few feet, in shapes from "torpedo topancake," and come in all the colors of the rainbow and inbetween. The 80,000 year old Reef is also "the breeding area for anumber of rare and endangered species. Humpback whales come fromthe Antarctic to give birth to their young in Reef waters. Six ofthe World's seven species of sea turtle breed on the Reef..." Like other coral reefs, the Great Barrier Reef was built by the births, deaths, and workaday lives of countless billions of coral polyps, tiny colonial animals that form limestone skeletons for support as they reach upward toward sunlight. Coral beds--again, numberless masses of them--are the solid structures in, on, and around which the other creatures of the reef live. As a result of its beauty and natural wealth, the GreatBarrier Reef is a popular spot for both tourists and locals. Theincrease in the number of visitors has inevitably resulted in thedegradation to areas of the Reef. The numbers of some species havebeen slowly diminishing while in some areas, the Reef itself hasdied. Once sleepy towns have been transformed into tourist resorts. In 1992, 1.2 million people (both foreign and local tourists) cameto see the Great Barrier Reef with the number of tourists expectedto grow at least ten percent a year. The creation of a newairport in Cairns in the early 1990s, has transformed it into aluxurious tourist resort. During the construction period ofseveral resorts, "hills were leveled, harbors dredged andartificial beaches created." This was only to be the beginningof the destruction. Prior to all of the tourist resorts and the increase in waysto travel to the Reef, only a handful of tourists came to see it. In the past, it was very difficult to find transportation to theReef so it was too troublesome to visit. Today, tourists areshuttled to various locations of the Reef by high-speed catamarans,dive boats, seaplanes, even helicopters. The increase intransportation modes also translates into more tourists visitingthe same handful of islands, straining the Reef nearby. Theincrease of tourists places added stress on a small fraction of theReef - there is more diving, more swimming, more shell collecting,more walking on the Reef, etc. and these actions have translatedthemselves into killing the coral. Often the tourists seem oblivious to the damage they cause theReef. Tourists damage the Reef while "walking across reef flatssmashing coral, collecting molluscs and fish, overturning coralboulders, etc." Many visitors do know that the Reef is sufferingfrom all of the attention and that it is a protected area. Thishas not stopped them from collecting live shells, however. Manypeople can not resist the temptation of picking up a shell or two. 'Most visitors know that the reef's protected now,' Geoffrey Mercer, one of the park wardens, told me recently. 'They know it's forbidden to collect live shells, but a lot of them just can't resist the temptation. They bring the shells all the way back to the hotel, and then their consciences get the better of them; they drop them in one of the nearby tidal pools.' Geoffrey grins. 'If you want to see the prettiest shells on Heron Island, check the area around the hotel.' In 1990, swimmers had to be told to stop urinating in thewater because it was killing the coral. Coral grows in lownutrient waters and the increased levels of nutrients, from theurine, began to have an effect on the coral necessitating thestatement. Swimmers often do not realize that urinating in thewater can have such a dramatic affect. Coral will eventually dieafter being constantly dosed with nutrients such as urine. Hotels are also damaging the Reef. They generally pipe theirsewage and wastewater directly into the ocean, damaging nearbycoral. The development of hotel resorts has led to the damage ofboth the coastline and the Reef. With the construction of hotels,comes the runoff of heavy sedimentation and the suffocation of thecoral. Runoff from agricultural development also leads toincreased nutrient levels in the water. Research commissioned bythe Park Authority "estimates that run-off from the mainland hasincreased fourfold since European settlement." Today visitors to the Reef may stay in posh resorts and travelto the Reef on luxury catamarans. One such catamaran comesequipped with "dining room, bar, spa and a lounge room bristlingwith hi-tech video editing facilities to capture your first dive onfilm." There are also some "sophisticated" resorts. Resorts are not to be outdone by the catamarans. One resort,which was built but did not succeed, was designed to be a hotelmoored to the Reef itself. The hotel was a seven-story, 200-bedroom building operated as a first-class hotel. There wereclosed circuit televisions in guest rooms and semi-submersibleswith "huge viewing windows to take guests below the surface andamong the fish and living coral of the reef." Another resortcomplex features an indoor ice skating rink. Tourist resorts do not have to have a negative impact on theReef, but if they are to be safe to the Reef, they must be planned,built and managed with the Reef's fragile ecosystem in mind. Permanently anchored pontoons, for example, "should be anchoredover sand to prevent the shade they cast from killing any coralsbeneath." Many people are beginning to complain that thus far, tourismhas been linked with the economy and the environment but not withsustainability. The fact that this component is missing istroublesome. Until a strategy is created which includes thiscomponent, tourism will have an adverse impact on the Reef. Recreational fishing is no longer harmless either. Over25,000 small boats are privately owned by residents living alongthe coast near the Great Barrier Reef. This means that the Reefis overfished, severely depleting the stock of fish. The boatowners are also not always careful where and how they drop theiranchors. This reckless behavior leads to damaging the Reef whenthe anchors hits and smash the coral. A constant battle continues with the oil developers who claimthat oil drilling will not damage the Reef. The developers arguethat the exploration and drilling would be performed four milesoffshore of the Reef, hence no damage would be incurred by it. Anadditional harm would come when and if an oil spill occurs. Management of the spill would be "hindered by a lack of informationas to the environmental impact of detergents used to contain thespread." Not only do authorities have to worry about spilled oil fromexploration but they also must worry about the potential spillswhich could occur as a result of an oil tanker colliding with theReef. Each year more than 2,000 large ships, many carryinghazardous cargoes, sail the narrow channel which runs inside theReef. Legislation was passed that made it mandatory for theseships to carry a pilot who is intimately knowledgeable of the area. However, this will not preclude the possibilities of spills fromoccurring, just reduce the chances. A final, yet very serious threat to the Great Barrier Reef isthe persistent outbreaks of the Crown of Thorns Starfish. In the1960s the first outbreak began. The Crown of Thorns Starfish is apredator; that is, it eats other living animals - small reef-building animals called coral polyps. Polyps usually constructcommunal limestone homes which are built up into a multitude ofshapes and sizes that eventually give rise to what is known as a'coral reef.' The crown of thorns starfish is mobile. Usingsuckers under its arms called 'tube feet', it is able to moveacross coral reefs to find new prey. After finding a suitablecoral, the crown of thorns pulls its stomach out through its mouth(a process known as 'stomach eversion') over the coral polyps andreleases digestive juices onto the coral, breaking down the polyp'stissue into a readily absorbed 'polyp soup.' It leaves only awhite coral skeleton which is soon invaded by algae, worms, boringmolluscs or reef settling organisms. A second outbreak began in 1979. As a result of the twooutbreaks almost one-third of the Reef has been attacked, with someparts of the Reef ninety-five percent destroyed. A thirdoutbreak began in the late 1980s. It is nearly impossible to stopthe Starfish, making the outbreaks even more serious. One of thefew ways to kill the Starfish is for divers to inject the animalswith poison or to remove them by hand. These processes take manymonths to be successful and cost between $5 and $16 per Starfish. Along with few solutions to the problem of outbreaks, thereare few answers as to the cause of them. Research has uncoveredCrown of Thorns spines in old Reef sediment suggesting thatoutbreaks have occurred in the past and may be a normal part of thenatural reef cycle. However, the fact that outbreaks are becomingmore frequent is still a mystery. Many scientists blame both thetourism industry and the development industry. The "increasingland clearing for urban and industrial expansion, forestry andagricultural activities...generally cause an increase in water andsediment runoff during heavy rains." Other scientists believe that the increase in humanactivities, such as shell collecting and fishing, have caused adecline in the natural predators of the Crown of Thorns Starfish. The conclusion is that humans have triggered the increase inoutbreaks.3. Related CasesSee CORAL caseSee CUBA case Key Words (1): Tourism (2): Travel (3): Coral4. Draft Author: Deborah MeisegeierB. LEGAL CLUSTER The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park was established under thefederal Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act of 1975. The Act calledfor the creation of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authoritywhich is the body in charge of managing the protection anddevelopment within the Park. The Park is not a national park butinstead is a "multiple-use protected natural area." The Park Authority has approximately ninety staff members andis responsible for "striking a balance between development andprotection of the fragile Great Barrier Reef." The Authority isresponsible for protecting the Reef for its own sake and for thefishing and tourism industries which are dependent upon the Reef'shealth. The Authority stresses that any use of the Reef or anynearby areas must not interfere or threaten the Reef's ecologicalprocesses. The Park is recognized by the International Union for theConservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) now the WorldConservation Union. It fits the definition of Category VIII(multiple-use protected area) and Category IX (biosphere reserve). In 1981, the Reef was added to the World Heritage List as a naturalsite. In 1990, it was declared a 'Particularly Sensitive Area'by the International Maritime Organization.6. Discourse: AGREEStatus: INPROG7. Forum: IUCN Scope: UNILAT8. Number of Parties Affected: 19. Legal Standing: LAWC. GEOGRAPHIC FILTERS The Great Barrier Reef is located in the state of Queensland. The region was settled in 1824 by the Europeans. It is Australia'sfastest growing state with a population of 2.7 million. Thereare three international airports in Queensland making it even moreaccessible to visitors. The Great Barrier Reef extends along Queensland's coastlinefor more than 1200 miles. In addition to the Great Barrier Reef,there are also rain forests in Queensland. The two natural wondersactually meet in the far north region of the state. The climate of the state is tropical to subtropical. The fourseasons are typically not distinctive and temperatures are usuallyhigher inland. There are low humidity levels making almost anytemperature comfortable.10. Geography: a. Continental Domain: AUSTRALIA b. Geographic Site: AUSTRALIA c. Geographic Impact: AUSTRALIA11. Sub-national Factors: YES, QUEENSLAND12. Type of Habitat: OCEAND. TRADE FILTERS13. Type of Measure: REGSTD14. Direct vs. Indirect Impacts: INDirect15. Relation of Measure to Impact: a. Directly Related: NO b. Indirectly Related: YES (TOURISM) c. Not Related: NO d. Process: YES (HABITAT)16. Product Type: TOURISM17. Economic Data: a. Industry Output ($): $6.1 billion b. Employment: 525,000 Overall the tourism industry generated $6.1 billion in 1992-93. Tourism from the Great Barrier Reef generates approximately$1,370 million per year. In addition to the money generated fromtourism, "corals themselves are gathered and sold as part of theinternational trade of reef products." Growth levels inemployment are expected to rise due to the successful SydneyOlympics bid.18. Degree of Competitive Impact: LOW The idea of zoning was introduced as the best resolution tothe dual objectives of protection and multiple use. "Levels ofprotection within these zones vary from almost complete absence ofrestriction on activities, to almost complete restriction of humanaccess." There are currently four different types of zones:preservation zones - in these areas, virtually all activities areprohibited scientific research zones - in these areas, scientificresearch is allowed under strict control marine national park zones- in these areas, scientific, educationaland recreational uses are allowed.general use zones - in these areas, some commercial andrecreational fishing are allowed. In addition to the zone divisions, the general use zones arefurther divided into type A and type B, with the type B zones morestrictly regulated. This strategy allows a greater degree ofregulation. Tourism is permitted in 99.8 percent of the Marine Park. The Park Authority is eager to prevent damage from occurring to theReef. The use of zoning, allows people to enjoy the Reef withoutcontributing to its death. In addition, in October of 1991 a pilotage legislation cameinto affect. Certain vessels (determined by size and cargo) arerequired to carry a pilot who is intimately knowledgeable of thearea. This law was created to reduce the possibilities of any shipgroundings or spills. New zoning was proposed in 1992 which took into accountinformation which was previously not available. A new zone wasproposed which would reduce activities around the areas wheredugong, turtles, and other fauna live. Another proposal called for the removal of nutrients from allsewage discharged from tourist resorts into the waters. A tourismmanagement strategy has also been proposed. The attempt of thisproposal is to reduce the affects of the developers during theconstruction of new resorts. New bans on fishing were alsointroduced in an effort to control overfishing, by both commercialfishers and recreational fishers.19.Industry Sector: Tourism (TOUR)20.Exporters and Importers: JAPAN and AUSTRALIA c. Leading Exporters (US $): $1.34 billion in 1992 d. Leading Importers (US $): N/AE.ENVIRONMENTAL CLUSTERS The living, growing portion of a coral reef is a thin veneeron the surface of the cemented limestone skeletons of millions ofdead corals and the remains of limestone producing (calcareous)plants. The reef cement is partially formed by encrusting algae,and partially by chemical precipitation from the water. Coral polyps, with the help of single-celled plants(zooxanthellae) living within them, convert dissolved limestonefrom the water into hard limestone. Polyps build their communallimestone homes into a multitude of shapes and sizes to produce thecomplex and beautiful coral colonies we see underwater. Corallinealgae and calcareous sponges grow between the old coral coloniesand help cement them into solid reefs. Reef building corals need warm waters in which to grow andtheir plant helpers, the zooxanthellae, need light, just as plantson land do. For this reason, coral reefs only develop well inwarm, shallow and clear tropical seas. From this description of how coral reefs are built, it isclear to see that reefs can not live in dirty water. Hence theyare threatened by the runoff of water (the water which drains fromthe crops sprayed with pesticides), the soil which is drained intothe sea as a result of increased development, the spill of oil(which may result both from the transportation of oil through theReef area and from any drilling and exploration which may takeplace on the sea floor), and from high amounts of urine (whichresults in increased levels of nutrients, killing the coral). The death of the coral, however, is only one part. Dead coralcan not sustain life. Hence the species which live on and aroundthe coral will also be affected. 21.Environmental Problem Type: SPLSPollution, Sea (POLS) The biggest environmental problem is the threat to habitat. Already some species are dead, while others have been severelydepleted. However, sea pollution is also a major problem and mustnot be ignored.22. Species Information: CORAL REEF23. Impact and Effect:HIGH and REGULatory24.Urgency and Lifetime While I was unable to locate data specific to the GreatBarrier Reef, I was able to locate data on coral reefs as a whole. The predictions estimate that 70 percent of the world's coral reefswill be severely degraded or dead by the year 2030.25.Substitute: CONSV Perhaps the best solution to the preservation of the GreatBarrier Reef is the expansion of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Parkand increased education to both visitors and natives. While thePark has divided the Reef into different zones allowing varioustypes of recreational and economic activities, the Authority mayhave to re-evaluate these zones. If degradation becomes too greatin some zones, it will have to restrict such activities. In thelong run, the health of the Great Barrier Reef will generate moreincome (from tourism) than will destroying it from overfishing. Enforcing the laws and collecting fines for those who disobey mayalso slow down and eventually end harmful and prohibitedactivities. Education is also a key. All people who come into contactwith the Reef must learn about the fragile ecosystem and how theycan contribute to its continuation rather than its destruction. Often times people do not realize how their actions adverselyimpact the Reef. Educating them on how the Reef grows and howtheir actions affect the coral may hinder, or at the very leastslow down, the ultimate death of the wonder they come to visit. The Park Authority has issued basic guidelines for thosepeople who want to enjoy the beauties of the Reef. Included amongthese guidelines are anchoring with care, shipping out the litterthat is brought in, and limiting the fish that is caught. The Park Authority urges people who are fishing or boatingnear the Reef to try and anchor in the sand, not in the coral. They should also motor toward the anchor when hauling it in. Thesesimple efforts will reduce the damage done to the coral. The Authority also suggests that "if you take it out, bring itback." The belief is that if it was possible to bring it withyou, then it can also be removed by you. Discharging oil, fuel,plastic containers, and any other type of garbage is very damagingto the Reef. Fines up to $274,000 for individuals and up to$1,370,000 for companies will be levied against offenders. Finally, people should take only the fish that is needed fortoday and leave the rest for another day. Doing this, can reducethe effects of overfishing.F. OTHER FACTORS26. Culture: YES There are three Aboriginal Trust areas next to the CairnsSection of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. In an effort tomaintain the culture of the Aborigines, the Park Authority allowstraditional hunting and fishing by Aboriginal people in all zonesof the Cairns Section except Preservation Zones. Permits for hunting or fishing are issued to the community. The permits have some conditions, including a ban on the use offirearms or noxious substances, and the authorities request thatthe Aboriginal people report on any dugong or turtle caught. The dugong is of significant cultural value to the Aboriginalpeople. They are hunted for their meat, which is shared with thecommunity and is an important ceremonial food, and for their oilwhich is used by older people as a cure for aches, pains, andillnesses. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority believes it hastaken steps to recognize the customary rights of the Aboriginalpeople. However, more improvements are being sought as the ParkAuthority is trying to improve liaison with the Aboriginalcommunities.27. Human Rights: NO27. Trans-Boundary Issue: NO28. Relevant Literature ---. "A 25-Year Strategic Plan for the Great Barrier Reef WorldHeritage Area." Reflections, No. 27, June, 1992, pp. 4-13.---. Australian Financial Review, April 8, 1987.---. "Coral, Politics and Oil." The National Times, December 14 to20, 1980, pp. 10-12. ---. Crown of Thorns. one in a series published by the GreatBarrier Reef Marine Park Authority and the Queensland Nation Parksand Wildlife Service, February, 1985.---. "Daintree Road and the Reef." The Sydney Morning Herald. May8, 1985, p. 10.---. "Oil Drilling 'Will Not Damage Barrier Reef'." The CanberraTimes, June 14, 1980, p. 3.---. Queensland Australia: The Great Barrier Reef State. touristbrochure. 1994.---. Reef Region Fisheries. one in a series published by the GreatBarrierReef Marine Park Authority and the Queensland Nation Parks andWildlife Service, February, 1985.---. "Swimmers told to Stop Urinating on Great Barrier Reef."Reuter News Service, January 17, 1991.---. "The Float that Flopped." Australian Financial Review, June13, 1989.---. The Great Barrier Reef. one in a series published by the GreatBarrierReef Marine Park Authority and the Queensland Nation Parks andWildlife Service.Alexander, David."Guarding Watery Paradise." InternationalWildlife, Vol.18, No. 4, May, 1988, p. 4-10.Australian Academy of Science. Acanthaster Planci (Crown of ThornsStarfish) and The Great Barrier Reef. No. 11, February, 1970.Australian Overseas Information Service. Australia: AnIntroduction. December 1994.Australian Tourist Commission. Destination Australia. Venice:Charles Patricolo & Company, 1995.Beale, Bob. "Alarm Over Tests on Coral." The Sydney Morning Herald,February 12, 1994, p. 7.Bita, Natasha. "Lack of Funds Threatens $1bn-a-year Resource." TheWeekend Australia, April 6-7, 1991, p. 3.Drogin, Bob. "Trouble Down Under." Los Angeles Times Magazine. September 19, 1993, pp. 18-20, 60-62.Endean,Robert. Australia's Great Barrier Reef. St. Lucia,Queensland: University of Queensland Press, 1982.Glascott, Joseph. "Millions of Visitors for the Barrier Reef."Hall, C. Michael. "Ecotourism in Australia, New Zealand and theSouth Pacific: Appropriate Tourism or a New Form of EcologicalImperialism?" in Cater, Erlet and Lowman, Gwen, (eds.). Ecotourism:A Sustainable Option? Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1994.House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment andConservation. Protection of the Great Barrier Reef. Canberra:Australian Government Publishing Service, 1985.Kelleher, Graeme. "Sustainable Development of the Great BarrierReef Marine Park." in Hawkes, Suzanne and Williams, Peter (eds.).The Greening of Tourism: From Principles to Practice, A Casebook ofBest Environmental Practice in Tourism. Burnaby, B.C.: Simon FraserUniversity, 1993.Malcolm, Steve. "Rising Nutrient Level Harming Ecosystems." The Age(Melbourne), November 1, 1994, p. 16.McGregor, Adrian. "Tourists Hear the Call of the Islands." TheNational Times, December 14 to 20, 1980, p. 15.Passa, Dennis. "Australia's Great Barrier Reef Periled by Man,Nature." The Los Angeles Times, May 5, 1991.Perry, Michael. "Take a Dive on the Wild Side and Kiss a Fish."Reuter Textline, August 8, 1993.Reischl, Gerald. "Australia's Underwater Wonder." World PressReview, Vol. 38, No. 3, March 1991, p. 62.Scott, David Clark. "Starfish Threaten Australia's Great BarrierReef - and Tourism." The Christian Science Monitor, August 24,1988.Smith, Deborah. "The Unknown Risks to the Reef's EcologicalBalance." The National Times, December 14 to 20, 1980, p. 14.Summerhays, Soames. "A Marine Park is Born." National Geographic,(May, 1981), pp. 630-635.Tarte, Diane and Hegerl, Eddie. "Great Barrier Reef: Guarding OurGreatest Living Treasure." Habitat Australia, October, 1990, p. 17-19.Weber, Peter K. "Saving the Coral Reefs." The Futurist, July-August, 1993, p. 28-33.White, Mel. "Australia's Great Barrier Reef." National GeographicTraveler. Vol. 9, No. 1 (January, 1992). p. 96-111.Wright, Judith. "The Reef's Defenders." The National Times,December 14 to 20, 1980, pp. 12-14.