Since the Gulf War, various news reports, essays, andcritiques have been published concerning the physical devastationbrought about by coalition force bombing attacks. No doubt, the ruinous aftermath remains a very important environmental, economic,and cultural concern. One of the more important internal problems,however, has been quietly unfolding over the past four years. Itinvolves an attempt, by the Iraqi Government, to force the Ma'danpeople (roughly 500,000 of them), the so-called 'Marsh Arabs,' outof their southern wetland settlements by literally "draining lifefrom Iraq's marshes." Reaching beyond the social and politicalramifications, the permanent environmental and economic damagecaused by this policy may be irreversible. By diverting the waterflow of one of the most famous and important river systems in theworld (the Tigris/Euphrates), the Iraqi leaders appear to betampering with not only their environment but with their historicallegacy, as well.2. Description The idea of draining the marshlands of southern Iraq is not anew concept, and certainly not the first time the Tigris-Euphratesriver system has been harnessed for man's use. The delta/marsharea "was probably the first region of the world where humansgained mastery over major rivers. Irrigation and flood protectionwere vital to the farmers who fed the inhabitants of the world'sfirst known cities, built in Mesopotamia more than 5,000 yearsago." The marshlands region was part of this development. Over the years, as technology improved, dams were built toharness water and energy for irrigation and electricity. WithinIraq, there are at least four dams on the Euphrates and three majordams on the Tigris, which are contributing heavily to a watershortage in the area. The first major marsh-draining scheme was proposed in the 1951Haigh Report, "Control of the Rivers of Iraq," drafted by Britishengineers working for the Iraqi government. "The report describesan array of sluices, embankments and canals on the lower reaches ofthe Tigris and Euphrates that would be needed to 'reclaim' themarshes." The study's senior engineer, Frank Haigh, felt that thestanding marsh water was being wasted, so he "proposedconcentrating the flow of the Tigris [River] into a few embankedchannels that would not overflow into the marshes. He proposed onelarge canal through the main `Amara marsh." In this way, Iraqwould be able to "capture the marsh water for irrigation" purposesto aid in feeding the newly created State of Iraq. Construction of the large canal, called the Third River, beganin 1953. Further construction took place in the 1960's. It wasnot until the 1980's, however, during the Iran-Iraq War, that majorwork was resumed. Today, many of the water projects in the marsharea bear a striking resemblance to the Haigh Plan -- the onlyproblem is that the projects are not being used for agriculturalimprovement! Various international organizations such as the U.N. HumanRights Commission, the Supreme Council of the Islamic Revolution inIraq (SCIRI), the International Wildfowl and Wetlands ResearchBureau, and Middle East Watch have been monitoring the Iraqisituation. All have found evidence to indicate that the IraqiGovernment has been attempting to force the Ma'dan people fromtheir homes through water diversion tactics copied from the HaighReport. Iraq's majority Sunni government is attempting to weakenthe Ma'dan because they are Shiite Muslims, maintaining religiouslinks with Iran's Shiite leadership. They have also been accusedby the government of harboring refugees from oppression inBaghdad. Since the end of the Gulf War, the above-mentionedorganizations have uncovered the following intelligence: 1) By1993, the Iraqi Government was able to prevent water from reachingtwo-thirds of the marshlands. 2) The flow of the Euphrates Riverhas almost been entirely diverted to the Third River Canal,bypassing most of the marshes. 3) The flow of the Tigris River hasbeen channeled into tributary rivers (with artificially highbanks), prohibiting the tributary water from seeping into themarshlands. As a result, the environmental effects are thought to be"irreversible with disastrous ecological, social and humanconsequences for the region." The sparse water remaining hascontributed to the salinization of the land. "Over-irrigation andpoor drainage compound the problem: as the stagnant waterevaporates, it leaves behind a crust of salt." The future forwildlife in the region looks bleak, as well. The marshes are hometo fish and migratory birds from western Eurasia such as pelicans,herons and flamingos. Without fresh water, the ecosystem willeasily become damaged. In economic terms, the effects are just as severe. Themarshlands region, is home to various crops, trees and livestock. The staple crops of the region are rice and millet. Date palmsfrom the area have played an important part in Iraqi exports aswell as the weaved reed mats and harvested cereals from the Ma'danpeople. The marshes are also home to cows, oxen, and waterbuffalo. The recent scarcity of water in the marshlands hascontributed to transport problems, which has all but put a stop toeconomic movement in the region. "Instead of moving...goods byboat the Ma'dan are often having to struggle through hip-deep mudon foot...in addition, hundreds of thousands of inhabitants havefled their areas. If this process continues, Saddam Hussein willbecome responsible for destroying not only the environment andculture, but one of the oldest and most important links with Iraq'spast -- the people of the marshlands.
Keyword Clusters (1): Bio-geography = LAND, RIVER, DELTA (2): Environmental Problem = HABITat loss, BIODIV (3): Trade Problem = FOODs4. Draft Author: Robert D. CohenB. LEGAL Clusters5. Discourse and Status: INPROGress The U.N. has been attempting to monitor the situation in thesouthern marshes of Iraq. The one piece of legislation applying tothe marshlands situation is U.N. Resolution 688, passed April 6,1991. "This resolution calls on the Iraqi government to providefree access to United Nations and non-governmental humanitarianagencies to all parts of the marshes so that essential humanitarianassistance can be provided." In January 1995, the EuropeanParliament (EP) also passed a resolution "characterizing the[M]arsh Arabs as a persecuted minority 'whose very survival isthreatened by the Iraqi Government.' The EP resolution describedthe Government's treatment of the marsh inhabitants as'genocide'." In March 1995, the European Parliament adoptedanother resolution deploring the continuing attacks on Marsh Arabs. Furthermore, the U.N. Human Rights Commission, in March 1995,passed a resolution calling for an end to military operations andefforts to drain the swamplands. 6. Forum and Scope: (OPEN) and REGION Since all of the environmental and economic damage to themarshlands is yet to be seen, there has not been any formal legalcase brought before a forum at this time. The United Nations,however, appears to be the likely forum for legislative activity. 7. Decision Breadth: N/A If and when a law is passed, the decision breadth willprobably come from a multi-national organization, such as the U.N. It is also possible that unilateral action will be taken againstIraq's marshlands policy. The United States has already (throughU.N. auspices) enforced a "no-fly" zone in the south in an attemptto crack Iraq's inhumane activities.8. Legal Standing: N/A As of this writing, no other legal proceedings have been foundthat reveal any treaty or legislation aimed at curbing theenvironmental or economic degradation of the Iraqi marshlands. TheIraqi government has not declared the lands as part of the RAMSARCONVENTION, "the international treaty that protects wetlands."C. GEOGRAPHIC Clusters9. Geographic Locations a. Geographic Domain : MIDEAST b. Geographic Site : SMID c. Geographic Impact : IRAQ The worst destruction is located in the southeast sector ofIraq, between the cities of Amara, Nassiriyah, and Basra (in theland of ancient Mesopotamia). The `Amara Marsh, near theconfluence of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, is home to theMa'dan people. The `Amara Marsh has been most affected by thedrainage scheme. Another geographical concern involves water shortage. TheMiddle East continually suffers from drought and water amounts arealways near critical levels. "The region's acceleratingpopulation, expanding agriculture, industrialization, and higherliving standards demand more fresh water." Dam-building isadding to the problem. For example, Turkey just recently completedbuilding the Ataturk Dam [1993] on the Euphrates River. This damis now capable of harnessing river water for irrigation and powerpurposes. Since 90 percent of the water for the Euphratesoriginates in Turkey, any amount kept by Turkey will decreasewaterflows to other nations downstream (i.e., Syria and Iraq). This is another reason why the Iraqi marshlands have been drying-up. There is no "legally binding obligation" to prohibit Turkeyfrom taking the river water. Neighboring countries sufferingshortages can press for fair treatment by claiming "historicalrights of use", but this usually comes to no avail. In the area,Turkey, Syria, and Iraq have set up a "technical committee" toshare hydrological information, but it has made "no realheadway."10. Sub-National Factors: YES Since the Iraqi Government is attempting to exterminate aminority within its own borders, this issue can be defined as Sub-National. Most of the environmental and trade effects are Sub-National, as well. People have been living in the area of the southern marshesfor thousands of years. The ancestors of the Ma'dan (currently thelargest group of marsh dwellers, numbering around 500,000) were"partly descendants of the Sumerians and Babylonians, althoughtheir numbers have been augmented by immigrations andintermarriages with the Persians on the east and the bedouins onthe west." Before the marsh drainage, the lifestyle of theMa'dan centered around agriculture, particularly cultivating riceand dates, weaving reed mats, raising water buffalo, and fishing. A form of local commerce had developed involving mostly localtrade, supported by the use of small boats for transportation. Since the Ma'dan are Shiite Muslims (sympathizing with themajority leadership in neighboring Iran), and the Iraqi Governmentis made up of Sunni Muslims, tensions have been steadily on therise. After the Gulf War ended in 1991, the southern Shiites, atthe urging of the coalition forces, started an uprising againstSaddam Hussein's government. The uprising was immediately crushedby Iraqi forces and the systematic drying of the land began due tothe fact that many Shiites who took part in the uprising fled tohide in the marshlands! Hence, the Ma'dan have been "flushed-out" along with the rebels, "mercilessly", as part of thegovernment's revenge scheme. 11. Type of Habitat: DRY (delta area near Persian Gulf)D. TRADE Clusters12. Type of Measure: None United Nations trade sanctions have been placed on Iraq due toits human rights violations, but no environmental or traderestrictions have been passed to curtail its waterflow policies. Perhaps, if the policy continues to drain the marshlands,neighboring countries will begin to protest (i.e., Iran, Kuwait).13. Direct vs. Indirect Impacts: DIRect14. Relation of Measure to Environment Impact a. Directly Related : NO b. Indirectly Related : YES AGRICulture c. Not Related : NO d. Process Related : YES HABITat loss Though there is no legislation dealing with the marshlandsenvironment, one can easily see how the relations might be drawn.15. Trade Product Identification: FOOD, NOTH Crops involved are: paddy rice and great millet. OtherProducts/items from the marsh area used in trade are: graincereals, dates, fish and woven reed mats form the Ma'dan people. Most of the trade has been internal (within Iraq), supporting theMa'dan people. With the loss of valuable water, however, thisway of life is quickly coming to an end. The water-based ruraleconomy of the Marsh Arabs is being exterminated.16. Economic Data Most of the damage is environmental in nature. Water,nevertheless, is becoming a highly valued commodity and itsunbridled drainage will certainly cause future problems. Tradesanctions (on oil) imposed by the United States, under UN auspices,have hurt Iraq ever since the Kuwait invasion. The IraqiGovernment's continuing drainage scheme will only serve to prolongthe sanctions' enforcement. 17. Impact of Measure on Trade Competitiveness: N/A The impact of U.N. sanctions has already reduced Iraq's tradecompetitiveness considerably. For example, "before the impositionof the oil embargo in August 1990, Iraq imported food and medicalproducts worth $3-4 billion a year. The revenue available todayfor those types of imports, including those arriving as contrabandfrom Jordan, Turkey, and Iran, does not exceed a billiondollars." More sanctions or legal actions could cripple Iraqeven further.18. Industry Sector: CRAFT For hundreds of years, the Ma'dan have cut river reeds andused them to produce mats, fences, and homes. Reed has also beenused to make beds, cots, baskets and canoe poles. Crafting reedproducts has helped sustain the Ma'dan and has given them theopportunity to barter with people from the surrounding countryside. As the marshes are drained, and the Ma'dan are forced to flee theirhomeland, this important part of their culture will disappear.19. Exporter and Importer: N/A Besides products like dates and rice, the southern marshdwellers do not produce many items for export. Most Ma'dan tradehas taken place within Iraq's borders.E. ENVIRONMENT CLUSTERS20. Environment Problem Type: HABITat loss Due to the marsh draining, there is a large bio-diversityproblem. FISH, BIRDS, and HUMANS are being displaced. CROPS arealso being destroyed, as well as the LAND and the marshesthemselves. The salinization of the land is polluting formerlygood agricultural areas, such as the land surrounding the `AmaraMarsh.21. Name, Type, and Diversity of Species Name: FISH, BIRDS, HUMANS Type: Animal This case can also be described as a Bio-diversity problem.22. Impact and Effect: HIGH and STRCT The case has caused HIGH and immediate impact upon themarshlands. The LAND has suffered many of the effects and willcontinue to do so as long as the ecosystem continues todeteriorate. The Ma'dan people are suffering HIGH impacts, aswell.23. Urgency and Lifetime: HIGH and 50 years If the marshes continue to be drained at the current rate,they will probably become non-existent in another 50 years.24. Substitutes: RECYCF. OTHER Factors25. Culture: YES A way of culture is being snuffed out. The Ma'dan are beingforced to leave their homeland and a link to the ancient past isdisappearing quickly.26. Trans-Border: NO As of this writing, there has been no major outcry fromneighboring Iran about the marsh-draining or human displacement,though the marshlands do border Iran. However, about 650,000 Iraqirefugees have crossed over the Iraqi border to Iran to escape Iraqimilitary operations directed against them.27. Rights: YES As mentioned above, the U.N. Human Rights Commission andMiddle East Watch have been monitoring the situation.28. Gender: NO29. Geo-Politics: YES Iraq has been accused of following through with its marsh-draining project for military and political purposes -- not foragricultural purposes, as the official line insists. An officialIraqi document in the possession of an Iraqi engineer who wascaptured by resistance forces in the area, provides details aboutwhat is transpiring in the marsh area: "It contained instructionsto 'withdraw all foodstuffs, ban the sale of fish and prohibittransport to and from the areas.' Mass arrests, assassinations,poisoning the water and burning villages were also ordered by theIraqi regime." Agriculture has nothing to do with what isactually transpiring.30. Relevant Literature BooksHazelton, Fran, ed. Iraq Since the Gulf War: Prospects for Democracy (London: Zed Books, Ltd., 1994).Salim, S. M. Marsh Dwellers of the Euphrates Delta (London: The Athlone Press, 1962). JournalsGleick, Peter H., Haleh Hatami, Peter Yolles. "Water, War, and Peace in the Middle East: Conflict Over Water Rights." Environment 36/3 (April, 1994).Pearce, Fred. "Draining Life From Iraq's Marshes." New Scientist 138/1869 (April 17, 1993).Rouleau, Eric. "America's Unyielding Policy Toward Iraq." Foreign Affairs 74/1 (January/February 1995).Vesilind, Priit J. "The Middle East's Water: Critical Resource." National Geographic 183/5 (May, 1993). Magazines"Iraq: Down but not out." The Economist 335/7909 (April 8, 1995). NEWSPAPERSDeutsche Press-Agentur (March 8, 1995). OTHERReuter EC Report (March 20, 1995).U.S. Department of State Dispatch, March, 1995.
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